science
system of obtaining knowledge in the form of testable theories and hypotheses with aim of explaining/predicting natural phenomena
goal of science
describe our world and understand the causes of our observations
what questions
description/identity (____ is this thing)
why questions
cause/explanation (____ this happens)
how questions
function/quantity (___ this thing works)
fact
observation that's been repeatedly confirmed
hypothesis
tentative statement about natural world, leading to deductions that can be tested
theory
well-established explanation of natural world that is based on tested hypotheses (why question)
law
statements based on repeated experiments/observations, that describe/predict a range of natural phenomenon (how or why question)
Scientific method
observation/question
research topic area
form hypothesis
test with experiment
analyze data
report conclusion
repeat
deductive reasoning
consider set of hypotheses and draw logical conclusion from them (general --> specific) A is B, and B is C, so A is C
problems with deduction
unable to verify the premises
falsehoods can be concluded
inductive reasoning
aim for broad generalizations based off specific observations; using available data to draw best conclusion possible (specific --> general)
problems with inductive reasoning
even if premises are true, conclusion might not be
particular doesn't extend to general
biases on data collection
abductive reasoning
based on limited/incomplete info; looks for most likely explanation for data, given previous knowledge
problems with abductive reasoning
no guarantee that the explanation is T or F
logical empiricism: hypothetico-deductive method
hypothesis formed by inductive reasoning (observe and hypothesize)
test hypothesis by validating/falsifying the deductions made from hypothesis
if hypothesis is true, so are deductions. so test deductions with experiments/observations
deductions false = hypothesis wrong
deduction true = hypothesis might be true, test again with new deductions
testable and falsifiable
for statements to be scientific, they must be ___
bias
any factor that might influence data collection or interpretation, conferring disproportional weight to one of many possible interpretations
where does bias come from?
context personal beliefs preconceptions biased information sources
how peer assessment can check our biases
our biases are more evident to colleague than to ourselves
confirmation bias
tendency to seek out and use info that confirms our views and expectations
can lead to false or suboptimal conclusions
error
difference between observed/measured values and true info in nature (the +/- at end of number)
accuracy
trueness of an answer, how close to true value you are
precision
refers to spread of values, how close to each other your measures are
PRECISION
most important characteristic of a scientific answer -- repeatability and falsifiability
systematic error
affects accuracy
caused by instrumental/ methodological or personal mistakes
corrected by perfecting methods / techniques
random error
affects precision
happens by chance/ uncontrollable fluctuations
can't be eliminated but can be quantified with statistics
standard deviation
statistical treatment that lets you access the normal distribution of data (capital Sx on calc)
normal distribution
silly little bell curve 68.3% of data in 1SD 95.4% of data in 2SD 99.7% of data in 3SD
file drawer effect / publication bias
scientists often don't publish studies that don't have statistically significant results
scientists waste money doing experiments that are already proven false
recall bias
responses to surveys or self-reporting about experiences biased by individuals' lives
data skewed bc certain ppl remember things better
citation bias
bias towards familiar sources
citations of only favorite journals = confirmation bias
sampling bias
when not all members of population have an equal chance of being selected for a sample (ie non-response, undercoverage, voluntary response, recall)
selection bias
when researchers influence data collection by collecting data to fit hypothesis (not randomly)
observation
what you experience with senses (data, facts)
inferences
conclusions you can make with past knowledge (hypothesis, educated guess)
darwin-wallace theory of evolution by natural selection
resources are scare = individuals compete
some individuals have better traits = better at securing resources
those individuals have more reproductive successful = pass down good traits
over time, entire population will be descendants with good traits
Experimental Design
aims to create a proper scientific experiment steps:
question
planning experiment - variable
collect data
analyze results
Mendel's experiments
common garden pea as model organism (bc great variety, numbers, convenience, easy to cross)
cross pollinates 2 true breeds (P1) for same trait, obtaining F1 gen
self the F1 to obtain F2
reciprocal crossing (repeat the crossing with different pollen donor)
model organism
non-human organism used to better understand biological processes
selfing
self pollinate
variables
factors in experiment that can influence results. must be quantifiable or measurable
independent variable
changed in experiment
dependent variable
responds to IV
controlled variable
held constant
conditions
different number of treatments you'll do
control
a treatment you know the results of beforehand
true breed strains
strains that display the same characteristics for generations
3:1 (dominant to recessive)
monohybrid or one-factor crossing
9:3:3:1 (both dominant to one dominant to other dominant to both recessive)
dihybrid or two-factor crossing
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance
law of segregation - each gamete carries only one factor for a trait
law of independent assortment - factors for different traits are independently passed through the gamete
law of dominance - some traits stronger (dominant) and some traits weaker (recessive)
gene
"factors of inheritance," part of DNA that codes for a specific characteristic
alleles
variations of genes (T or t)
phenotype
physical expression of a gene (purple flower or white flower)
genotype
the genetic code for a trait
homozygous dominant
TT
homozygous recessive
tt
Heterozygous
Tt or tT
evolution
any process of formation of growth and development (basically just change)
biological evolution
change in population properties over generations
survival of the fittest
resources are scarce = individuals compete
some individuals have better traits = secure resources better
sexual selection
individuals with better traits have more reproductive success
pass traits to offspring
with time, descendant will be entire population
species evolve
genetic information must change from one generation to the next, so ______, not organisms
population
all members of a species in the same area (smallest level of evo)
genetic variation
individuals in pop dont have exact same genes
population genetics
investigate the change of genetic composition of a population over time
gene pool
sum of all genetic material from all individuals in pop
Evolution at molecular scale
change in gene pool composition or frequency over time
frequency
relative proportions of genetic variation in gene pool
genotype frequency
homozygous dom = pp = p^2 heterozygous = 2pq homozygous recessive = qq = q^2
phenotype frequency
dominant frequency = p^2 + 2pq recessive frequency = q^2
allele frequency
p = frequency of dominant allele q = frequency of recessive allele p = 1 - q q = 1 - p
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
under certain ideal conditions, allele frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation in sexually reproducing populations p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
if no active processes of evo, use this to predict population genetics
P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
"either/or"
P(A) * P(B)
"and"
process
mechanisms a set of events that will lead to a given recognizable result
patterns
set of recognizable results caused by identifiable pattern
5 processes of evolution
mutation
gene drift
genetic flow
non-random mating
natural selection
autosome
non-sex inherited gene
allosome
sex-inherited gene
natural selection
Darwin-Wallace theory AGAIN
conditions needed: variation in a trait, variation in reproductive success, correlation between trait and reproductive success, trait is heritable
non-random mating
the goal of species is to leave their genes in the next generation, so individuals must pick the best partner possible to increase likelihood of offspring success
Dissassortative mating
individuals mate more often with individuals of different phenotype
assortative mating
individuals mate more often with individuals of a similar phenotype
inbreeding
extreme case of assortative mating when individuals mate with close genetic relatives
inbreeding depression
inbreeding increase frequency of homozygous recessive traits that may be bad. population survivability decreases as harmful recessive phenotypes increase
mutations
any alteration in genetic structure of organism
spontaneous and random (can happen at any time and is unpredictable)
natural selection determines if good or bad
gene flow/migration
movement of existing genes from one pop to another
alters genotype and allelic frequency of pop
factors affecting gene flow
mobility (can organism or gametes move)
territoriality (does species stay is same area)
nature of environment (physical barriers)
effects of gene flow on pop
adds variety to gene pool
increase/ decrease survivability of pop by increasing spread of good/bad alleles
gene drift
alleles change in frequency due to chance events (random and unbiased)
more impactful in small populations
random walk process bc no discernable pattern
bottleneck effect
small number of individuals survive at random
founder effect
few individuals become isolated and settle in area without previous population
the only alleles in new pop are those brought by founders
tension between drift and flow
drift causes pops to diverge by removing alleles flow prevents divergence by introducing new alleles
adaptive evolution
increase in frequency on beneficial alleles and decrease in deleterious alleles due to selection
cline
gradual geographic variation across an ecological gradient
diversifying selection
selection that favors 2+ distinct phenotypes
evolutionary fitness
individual's ability to survive and reproduce
frequency-dependent selection
selection that favors phenotypes that are either common (positive frequency-dependent selection) or rare (negative frequency-dependent selection)