CHECK: what should we do? the hypothetical and categorical imperatives:

How does Kant believe we perceive moral law?

Kant believes moral law is known through reason, not through experience, emotion, or gut feelings. He rejects approaches relying on consequences, desires, or sacred scriptures, emphasizing that moral knowledge is a priori and independent of empirical experience.

What are the two types of knowledge according to Kant?

• A posteriori knowledge: Gained through sense perceptions and experience, such as seeing or hearing something.

• A priori knowledge: Independent of experience and known universally or necessarily, such as mathematical truths or moral laws.

What is a posteriori knowledge? Provide an example.

• A posteriori knowledge arises from experience of particular objects.

• Example: "That woman has a small dog in her handbag" is known because it was seen.

What is a priori knowledge? Provide an example.

• A priori knowledge is independent of experience and applies universally.

• Example: "2 + 2 = 4" does not require physical objects like apples to demonstrate its truth.

Summarize Kant's quote about knowledge from Critique of Pure Reason.

Kant states, "Though all our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it all arises out of experience" (Critique of Pure Reason, [1787] 1964, B1, p. 41).

What are analytic judgements? Provide an example.

• Analytic judgements clarify what is already inherent in the subject.

• Example: "All bachelors are unmarried." The predicate (unmarried) is contained within the definition of bachelors.

What are synthetic judgements? Provide an example.

• Synthetic judgements add new information to the subject that is not inherent.

• Example: "The table in the kitchen is round." The predicate (round) requires additional information, like observing the table.

How does Kant combine judgements with ways of acquiring knowledge?

1. Analytic judgements: Always a priori because they are necessarily true without experience.

2. Synthetic judgements: Usually a posteriori as they rely on additional external information.

3. Moral knowledge: A priori synthetic, as it combines reason with universal moral laws beyond experience.

What is the hypothetical imperative?

• Commands based on conditional goals, e.g., "If you want to create happiness, then you should do X."

• The action is only necessary if the goal is pursued. Kant rejects this, arguing moral law must be unconditional.

What is Kant’s view on the categorical imperative?

The categorical imperative commands actions unconditionally, irrespective of desires or circumstances. For example, truth-telling is always right, even if it causes personal discomfort or harm.

What are the three formulas of the categorical imperative?

1. Formula of the Universal Law of Nature: Actions must be universalizable.

2. Formula of the End in Itself: Treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.

3. Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: Act as if you are a law-making member in a universal kingdom of rational beings.

What is the Formula of the Universal Law of Nature? Include Kant's quote.

• It states: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" (Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, [1785] 1997, p. 44).

• Actions must be universally applicable to all people and situations.

Provide an example of a maxim that fails the universalizability test.

• Maxim: "I only lie when it serves my interests."

• This fails because if everyone lied for self-interest, trust would collapse, making lying ineffective.

How does Benjamin Constant challenge Kant's categorical imperative on lying?

Constant argued that always telling the truth would harm society, such as lying to protect a friend from a murderer. Kant countered, stating lies harm humanity by undermining the foundation of right.

What does Kant say about treating people as ends? Include his quote.

"Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end" (Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, [1785] 1997, G429, p. 91).

What is the Formula of the Kingdom of Ends? Include Kant's quote.

• "Every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxims always a law-making member in the universal kingdom of ends" (Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, [1785] 1997, G439, p. 100).

• We must imagine a world where everyone acts morally, treating others with dignity and worth.

How did Kant influence 20th-century Catholic moral thought?

Kant’s emphasis on human dignity and universal rules influenced Karol Wojtyla (later Pope John Paul II), who wrote about treating persons as ends, not means, in Love and Responsibility (1982).