SOC 200 Study Guide: Crime, Social Theory, and Race

Robbery

The act of taking property from a person by force or threat of force. It involves direct confrontation with the victim.

Burglary

Unlawful entry into a building with the intent to commit a crime (typically theft). Unlike robbery, burglary does not necessarily involve confrontation with a victim.

Homicides

The unlawful killing of another person, classified as first-degree (premeditated), second-degree (intentional but not premeditated), or manslaughter (killing without intent).

Specialization in Crime

Many criminals do not specialize in one type of crime. Their crimes are often opportunistic, depending on circumstances and personal need.

Predicting Future Crimes

Crime is typically difficult to predict precisely. While some patterns exist (e.g., certain locations or times), individual criminal behavior can be erratic.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Lower socioeconomic status is one of the key predictors of criminal behavior, as people in poverty may turn to crime out of necessity or because of limited opportunities.

Men's Crime

Men tend to commit more violent crimes (e.g., robbery, assault, homicide).

Women's Crime

Women tend to commit more property crimes (e.g., shoplifting, fraud), though this is a generalization, and exceptions exist.

Underreporting

Some crimes, especially those involving women (e.g., domestic violence) or white-collar crime, are often underreported, leading to inaccuracies in official statistics.

Dark Figure of Crime

The total amount of crime that goes unreported or unnoticed by authorities.

White-Collar Crime

Non-violent crimes committed by individuals in higher social classes, often in the course of their occupation (e.g., fraud, embezzlement).

Cost of White-Collar Crime

White-collar crimes cost society billions of dollars annually.

Prosecution Issues of White-Collar Crime

White-collar crimes are less often prosecuted due to their complexity, the need for specialized knowledge to investigate, and the resources available to criminals to avoid detection.

Statistical Deviance

Refers to behaviors that are rare but not necessarily harmful (e.g., rare talents).

Social Deviance

Refers to actions that violate societal norms and typically result in negative consequences or punishment (e.g., criminal acts like theft, assault).

Strain Theory (Merton)

Deviance occurs when individuals are unable to achieve societal goals through legitimate means and resort to alternative methods, like crime.

Labeling Theory (Becker)

Deviance is not inherent in an act but results from how society labels it. Once labeled deviant, people may internalize the label and continue deviant behavior.

Differential Association Theory (Sutherland)

Deviance is learned through interactions with others. Individuals become deviant by associating with deviant peers.

Social Control Theory (Hirschi)

Deviance occurs when a person's bond to society is weak or broken. Strong social attachments prevent deviant behavior.

Formal Social Control

Enforced through laws, regulations, and institutionalized practices (e.g., police, courts).

Informal Social Control

Enforced through societal norms and expectations (e.g., family, peer pressure, socialization).

Overcrowding in Prisons

Prisons are often overcrowded, which leads to inhumane conditions.

Recidivism

Many prisoners re-offend after release due to inadequate rehabilitation and lack of social reintegration support.

Institutionalization

Long-term imprisonment can lead to a loss of social skills, making reintegration into society more difficult.

Conformity in Social Control Theories

Social control theories assume that individuals generally conform to societal norms and laws. Deviance occurs when social controls break down.

Retribution

Punishment as a form of revenge or to give criminals what they deserve.

Deterrence

Punishment intended to prevent others from committing similar crimes.

Rehabilitation

Punishment designed to reform criminal behavior.

Incapacitation

Punishment aimed at removing dangerous individuals from society.

Historical Materialism

Marx believed that history is driven by economic factors and the struggle between the ruling (bourgeoisie) and working (proletariat) classes.

Abolish Capitalism

Marx argued that capitalism, with its inherent inequalities, must be overthrown in favor of a classless society.

Class Struggle

The two main groups in the class struggle are the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (working class).

Revolt

Marx predicted that the proletariat would eventually revolt against the bourgeoisie and establish a communist society.

Mode of Production

The way in which the economy is organized, including technology, labor relations, and production methods.

Base and Superstructure

Base: Economic foundation (e.g., factories, labor). Superstructure: Ideologies, laws, and institutions shaped by the economic base.

Socialism

A system where the means of production are controlled by the state or community.

Communism

A classless, stateless society where all property is communally owned.

Functionalism

Durkheim argued that society is composed of interdependent parts that work together to maintain social order and stability.

Mechanical Solidarity

Found in traditional societies where people share common beliefs and values.

Organic Solidarity

Found in modern societies, where people perform specialized roles and rely on each other for social cohesion.

Anomie

A state of normlessness or breakdown of social norms, often occurring during periods of rapid social change.

Study of Human Behavior

Weber emphasized understanding human behavior through subjective meanings and motivations, rather than just objective facts.

Traditional Motive of Social Action

Actions based on habit or custom.

Affective Motive of Social Action

Actions driven by emotions.

Value-Rational Motive of Social Action

Actions driven by a belief in the intrinsic value of the action.

Instrumental-Rational Motive of Social Action

Actions driven by calculated decisions to achieve specific goals.

Traditional Authority

Power based on established customs or traditions.

Charismatic Authority

Power based on the personal qualities or charisma of a leader.

Legal-Rational Authority

Power based on legal rules and regulations.

Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Weber explored how the Protestant work ethic, particularly Calvinism, influenced the development of capitalism by promoting hard work, frugality, and individual responsibility.

Race

A social construct that categorizes people based on perceived physical differences (e.g., skin color). It is considered unreliable because physical differences do not neatly map onto social categories.

Hypodescent

A practice of assigning mixed-race individuals to the racial category of the more marginalized parent (e.g., the 'one-drop rule' in the U.S.).

Ethnicity

Refers to shared cultural practices, traditions, beliefs, and a sense of belonging to a specific group.

Cultural Languages

Ethnic groups often have their own language or dialect that serves as a key part of their identity.

Prejudice

Negative attitudes or beliefs about people based on their race, ethnicity, or other characteristics.

Discrimination

Unfair or unequal treatment of individuals based on their group membership (e.g., racial discrimination).

Racism

Racism is the belief that some races are inherently superior to others, leading to systemic inequality and social injustice.

Individual Racism

Personal beliefs or actions that are discriminatory.

Institutional Racism

Policies and practices within institutions (e.g., education, criminal justice) that disproportionately disadvantage certain racial groups.

White Privilege

Refers to the societal advantages that white people experience over non-white people, particularly in societies where whiteness is the norm.

Double Consciousness (W.E.B. Du Bois)

The feeling of having one's identity divided into multiple parts, leading to inner conflict.

The New vs. the Old Jim Crow

Old Jim Crow: A system of racial segregation and disenfranchisement in the U.S., which existed until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. New Jim Crow: Refers to the modern-day racial caste system in the U.S., which is perpetuated by mass incarceration and the criminal justice system.

Improving Race Relations

Promoting education on racial inequalities, addressing systemic racism, fostering inclusivity, implementing policies for racial equity, and encouraging intergroup dialogue to create better race relations.

Sociology

Sociology is the study of how people behave, interact, and organize within a society.

Social Order

How societies maintain stability and structure.

Social Change

How and why societies evolve over time.

Commonly Shared Practices

How culture, norms, and institutions shape daily life.

Marxism Theory

Society is structured by economic forces, particularly who controls wealth and production.

Historical Materialism

History is shaped by material (economic) conditions, not ideas alone.

Base (Mode of Production - MOP)

The economic system that determines all other aspects of society.

Superstructure

Everything else (culture, politics, law) built upon the economic base.

The Capitalists (Bourgeoisie)

Goal: Maximize profit. Problem: They care only about money, not human welfare.

The Working Class (Proletariat)

Problem: They are exploited and struggle for survival.

Class Consciousness

Workers must realize their oppression and unite.

Social Change: The Proletariat's Role

The working class must overthrow the capitalist system.

From Capitalism to Socialism

The economy should serve the people, not private interests.

Communism

A society without class divisions where resources are shared collectively.

Durkheim's Perspective

Unlike Marx, Émile Durkheim focused on social cohesion rather than conflict.

Solidarity

Social unity that holds society together.

Mechanical Solidarity

Traditional societies with shared beliefs and values.

Organic Solidarity

Modern societies, where people depend on specialized roles.

Statistical Deviance

Behavior that is rare but does not break rules (e.g., extreme talent, left-handedness).

Social Deviance

Behavior that violates societal norms or rules (e.g., theft, drug use).

Ethnicity

Refers to shared cultural traits such as language, traditions, and ancestry.

Hispanic/Latino

Defined by shared language and cultural background, not race.

Jewish identity

Can be religious, ethnic, or cultural.

African ethnic groups

Distinct identities (e.g., Yoruba, Zulu, Hausa) despite being categorized under 'Black' in Western societies.

Ethnic identity

Is fluid and can change based on migration, intermarriage, or social context.