IB Geography- Ultimate Study Guide

Populations in Transition

Populations in Transition

The study of population trends and changes over time.

Exponential growth

Rapid and increasing population growth over time.

Crude birth rate (CBR)

The total number of births per thousand people in a population.

Total fertility rate (TFR)

The average number of births per woman in a population.

Gender-related development index (GDI)

A measure of gender inequality based on life expectancy, education, and standard of living.

Migration

The permanent movement of people from one place to another.

Informal economy

Economic activities that are not regulated or protected by the government.

Poverty cycle

A cycle of poverty where certain countries or regions struggle to develop and escape poverty.

Rapid Economic Growth

Rapid economic growth rates are helping Asia regain its former position as the dominant world economic power.

Global Disparities

The main changes in income between different regions of the world include continued rapid economic growth in already rich countries, decline in real income of sub-Saharan Africa and eastern Europe, and relatively modest gains in Latin American and Arab states.

Lack of Decent Work and Low Incomes

One of the most important global disparities relates to the lack of decent work and low incomes, with about 200 million people not having any form of work according to the International Labour Organization (ILO).

Health and Education Inequalities

Health and education inequalities have widened, especially within countries, with sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia being in the worst predicament.

Environmental Impacts

Today's disparities are closely linked to human impact on the environment, with the poor frequently having poor access to land, water, fuel, and other natural resources, which limits productivity.

Global Warming

Global warming refers to the increase in temperatures around the world, particularly since the 1980s, caused by the greenhouse effect and the enhanced greenhouse effect due to increased greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the process by which certain gases allow short-wave radiation from the sun to pass through to heat up the earth, but trap an increasing proportion of long-wave radiation from the earth.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

The enhanced greenhouse effect is the increased amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

Effects of Global Warming

The effects of global warming include a rise in sea levels, increase in storm activity, changes in agricultural patterns, reduced rainfall, and extinction of wildlife species.

Policies to Combat Climate Change

Policies to combat climate change include reducing CO2 emissions through improved energy efficiency, fuel switching, use of renewable energy sources, nuclear power, capture and storage of CO2, and increasing the rate at which natural sinks take up CO2.

Changing Water Supply and Demand

Water usage has increased six times in the past century, and many areas are experiencing changing water supply and demand, depletion of aquifers, and dropping water tables.

Water Scarcity

Water scarcity can be physical or economic, with physical water scarcity occurring when water consumption exceeds 60% of the usable supply, and economic water scarcity occurring when additional storage and transport facilities are needed but are too costly.

Global Water Supply and Sanitation

Access to safe water supplies and sanitation is still a challenge, with urban areas being better served than rural areas, and countries in Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean being better off than African countries.

Ecological Footprints

Ecological footprints measure the amount of Earth's bio productive space needed to sustain a population at its current level of resource consumption, taking into account factors such as arable land, pasture land, forests, oceans, infrastructure needs, and energy costs.

Economic growth

The increase in the production and consumption of goods and services in an economy over time, often measured by the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Renewable energy

Energy derived from sources that are naturally replenished, such as sunlight, wind, water, and biomass.

Hydrological Cycle

• evapotranspiration

  • evaporation of water into vapour

  • water vapour escaping plants

• water condenses in clouds

• precipitation = rainfall

• infiltration- water runs underground

• runoff- water travels along surface to reservoirs

Flood prediction

• riverine flooding- river systems flood due to heavy water flow

• flash flooding- quick and dangerous, caused by lack of drainage

• storm surge- low pressure systems raise sea levels, swamp coast

• snow melt- rapid snow melt enters river systems in mountains

Flood mitigation- afforestation

• flood abatement- decreases runoff to mitigate flood’s peak

• includes: revegetation, contour ploughing slopes, sediment clearance, preservation of water reserves

  • increases interception

Flood mitigation- channel modification

• includes: raising banks, straightening river, creating new channels, steel and concrete fortifications

• artificial levees- raising banks such as on Mississippi River, USA

Flood mitigation- Planning

• personal insurance/preparation

  • sandbags, flood safe home

• loss sharing

  • disaster aid, insurance

Water scarcity

• physical- water consumption > 60% of useable supply

• economic- physically enough water, requires more storage and transport options

Water use and stress

• water stress = <1700 m3 per capita per year in an area

• in 2016, 2.3 billion people experienced water stress

• since 1922 world population has tripled and water use increased six fold

  • rivers no longer reach sea, 1/3 of wetlands gone, 20% freshwater species endangered, aquifers and water tables falling

outline the main causes of ocean currents…

• prevailing winds blowing steadily across sea

• dominant pattern of currents being clockwise in northern hemisphere & anticlockwise in Southern Hemisphere

• effect of rotation of earth cause water in oceans to push westward, piling up water on western edge of ocean basins

• return flow occurs as narrow fast-flowing currents

outline the main impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs…

• ocean acidity increases, more coral reefs damaged or killed off

• reduction in calcification and other calcifying organisms

• causes slower growth & weaker skeletons

explain the influence of ocean currents on energy transfers…

• warm currents move water away from equator

• cold ocean currents move water away from cold regions towards equator

• eg. Gulf Stream transports 55 million m3 per second which warms western europe waters

• north atlantic drift raises temps of nroth west, europe

• labrador current reduces summer temps

• eastern oceans experience upwelling where ocean currents move cold water, rich nutreints from ocean floor to the surface

what is El Niño?

Get a hint

• el nino: normal conditions are reversed, SST’s of over 28 degrees extend further across the pacific

• low pressures develop over eastern pacific & high pressures over the west causing heavy rainfall in west over south america

• western pacific eg indonesia experience warm, dry conditions

• benefits US, less hurricanes & decreased storm activity

• can be dangerous for indonesia as prolonged drought affects coffee production, forest fires, carbon release, spread disease

identify main hazards associated with tropical cyclones/ hurricanes…

• storm surges with hurricanes: abnormal rise of water generated by storm

• heavy rainfall & flooding with cyclones: hold huge amounts of moisture which cools when it rises & condenses into heavy rain

• flooding: storm losing strength as travels across land but continues to release masses of rain into streams, rivers, lakes & on land

Extreme Environment

relatively inaccessible areas that tend to be viewed as inhospitable to human habitation, though they do provide opportunities for settlement and economic activity

Ferrel Cell’s Wind Circulation

Driven by temperature differences, cool polar air masses, and warm subtropical air masses converge, pushing each other upwards along their meeting line around 60 and 70 degrees north and south.

Lapse Rate

the rate at which temperature drops

Solifluction

seasonal freeze-thaw action upon waterlogging topsoils which induces downslope movement

Ablation

all methods by which the glacier can lose mass. In this zone, there is a net loss in mass when outputs are greater than inputs

Arete

narrow, knifed-edged ridge

Hanging Valley

tributary glacier left high above the main valley

Ribbon Lake

long narrow lack in glacial trough

Striations

rocks scaled with parallel scratches

Solifluction

Common when surface sediments are poorly drained and saturated with water. Occurs when tyres are above zero and free liquid water is available in the action later

Permafrost

permanently frozen subsurface

Open-system pingos

forms when the source of water is a distance elevate the source

Disintegration

a form of weathering where the grains of rock become loose and fall out, leaving a pitted surface

Ephemeral rivers

Rivers that flow seasonally or after a storm and tend to have high discharges and sediment levels

Yardangs

extensive ridges of rock. They are separated by troughs, and have an alignment similar to the prevailing winds.

Oases

fertile spots in the desert where water is found. Formed where natural depressions are deep enough to cut into water table

Measea

Plateau-like featured with steep-sides

Sustainable Development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. They should fulfill needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, but are restricted by limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet these present and future needs.

Aquaponics

an integrated form of farming that enables farms to increase yield by growing plants and farming fish in the same closed freshwater system

Duration

The length of time that a hazard lasts.

Speed of onset

The speed at which the peak of the hazard arrives.

Areal extent

The coverage of a hazard over a large area.

Epicentre Location

The location of the epicenter of an earthquake.

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale

A scale used to measure hurricanes based on wind speed and storm surge.

Warning and preparedness

The level of warning and preparedness affecting hurricane impacts.

Prediction of drought

The ability to forecast precipitation and temperature.

Voluntary risk

The voluntary nature of the risk affecting perception.

Disposable income

The income available to a person after tax.

Cheaper cost of transportation

The reduction in airfares and travel costs to make travel more affordable.

Categorization of tourism and sporting activities

The classification of activities into different groups based on their nature and purpose.

Ecotourism

Tourism that focuses on the natural environment and local communities.

Tourism that focuses on the natural environment and local communities.

Tourism that conserves primary tourist resources and supports local livelihoods and culture.

Increased wealth and development in the country

The economic growth and development of a country, which can lead to investments in sports infrastructure and facilities.

Advertisement and marketing in new areas

The promotion of sports events and merchandise in new locations to attract a wider audience.

Indicators of malnutrition

Stunted growth, wasting, and undernourishment are indicators of malnutrition.

Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)

A measure of the amount of energy input compared to the amount of output produced by a farm, calculated by dividing total output by total input.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

An organization that works to eliminate hunger, improve agriculture, reduce rural poverty, and promote sustainable food systems.

Influence of TNCs or Agribusiness on food consumption habits

Large-scale food production by TNCs increases food availability, reduces costs, extends shelf life, and offers a wide range of food choices to consumers.

Preventive Health Care

Measures taken to prevent diseases from occurring, focusing on prevention rather than treatment.

Urbanisation

The increasing concentration of populations in urban areas.

Industrialization

The shift from agrarian economies to industrialized societies often leads to the growth of urban centers.

Employment Opportunities

Cities offer diverse job opportunities, drawing people seeking employment.

Sphere of Influence

The area served by a settlement.

Megacity

A city with more than 10 million people

Central Business District (CBD)

The core of a city, usually characterized by high-density commercial and office buildings.

Gentrification

The transformation of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.

Smart Cities

Smart cities are characterized by their performance in the economy, environment, people, governance, mobility, and living conditions. They rely on information and communication technology (ICT) and social infrastructure to manage resources efficiently and improve quality of life.

Glocalization

The adaptation of a global product or service to suit the specific needs and preferences of local cultures or localities.

Multi-governmental Organizations (MGOs)

Organizations or countries that come together to form a single entity for trading purposes, facilitating the free movement of goods, services, finance, and ideas.

Cultural diffusion

The spread of cultural traits from one place to another through cultural change processes.

Cultural hybridity

The intermixing of different cultures through migration, media, transportation, global brands, and the internet.

Geopolitical and Economic Risks

Threats to individuals and businesses, including hacking, identity theft, surveillance implications, and risks to global supply chain flows.

Local and Global Resilience

Strategies to build resilience, including rejecting globalization, controlling risks, and implementing mechanisms to manage risks.