PSYC 2301: Exam 2

Chapters 9, 12, 15, 16, and 17

Developmental psychology

studies how people grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan.

The preconventional level of Kohlberg’s Theory

is concerned with punishments or rewards that come from the external world.

The conventional level of Kohlberg’s Theory

is concerned with abiding by standards that are either set by parents or by the law.

The postconventional level of Kohlberg’s Theory

is concerned with the principles that are accepted by the community or more abstract principles that are for all humanity.

Assimilation

occurs when a person incorporates a new experience and information into existing schema.

Accommodation

occurs when a person adjusts his or her schema to new information.

sensorimotor stage

Piaget’s **first** **stage** of cognitive development, lasting from **birth to about 2 years of age**, during which infants construct an *understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions*.

object permanence

Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of *understanding that objects and events continue to exist* even when they **cannot** directly be seen, heard, or touched.

operations

Piaget’s term for mental representations of changes in objects that can be reversed.

preoperational stage

Piaget’s **second stage** of cognitive development, lasting from about **2 to 7 years of age**, during which *thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought*.

concrete operational stage

Piaget’s **third stage** of cognitive development, lasting from about **7 to 11 years of age**, during which the individual uses *operations* and replaces intuitive reasoning with *logical reasoning in concrete situations*.

formal operational stage

Piaget’s **fourth stage** of cognitive development, which begins at **11 to 15 years of age and continues through the adult years**; it features *thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future.*

*Egocentrism* is characteristic of which of Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

Preoperational

*Hypothetical and deductive reasoning* is characteristic of which of Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

Formal Operational

*Learning object permanence* is characteristic of which of Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor

*Understanding conservation tasks* is characteristic of which of Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

Concrete Operational

Harry Harlow’s experiments with rhesus monkeys suggest which of the following as most important for infants when establishing an attachment to their mothers?

The tactile characteristics of the mother

Attachment theory says that a securely attached child

is predictive of social competence during its toddler years

cohort effects

differences that stem from these individuals not because of their age, but due to historical or social contexts related to a specific time period.

Cross-sectional studies

show changes that occur with age.

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)

a cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink heavy amounts of alcohol during their pregnancy.

According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need to have respect for ourselves and to be valued by others is classified within the category of

esteem needs.

According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need to have food and water is classified within the category of

Physiological needs

According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need to have a resourceful job and security is classified within the category of

Safety needs

According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need to have deep and personal connections is classified within the category of

love and belonging

According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need to have the best qualities and achievements that you can have is classified within the category of

Self-actualization

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test that is designed to *elicit stories* that reveal something about an individual’s personality

Type D behavior pattern

A cluster of characteristics—including being generally distressed, having negative emotions, and being socially inhibited—related to adverse cardiovascular outcomes.

Personality

A pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world.

a person's unique set of usual thoughts and behaviors and traits.

psychodynamic perspectives

Theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and as developing in stages.

psychodynamic perspective’s way of understanding personality

involves exploring the symbolic meanings of behavior and the unconscious mind.

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psychodynamic perspective emphasizes how

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Early childhood experiences with parents are important in sculpting the individual’s personality

id

The Freudian structure of personality consisting of unconscious drives; the individual’s reservoir of psychic energy.

•pleasure principle

ego

The Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality.

•reality principle

superego

The Freudian structure of personality that serves as the harsh internal judge of our behavior; what we often call conscience.

•conscience

The Ego is

geared towards more **practical**, **goal-oriented**, and **reasonable** demands of reality, and is the *thinking component of the personality.*

The Superego is

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geared towards **morals** and is where you will find *social customs*.

The Id is

geared towards *instant* **instinct gratification**, wanting to satisfy basic sexual drives or desires.

defense mechanisms

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The Freudian term for tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by *unconsciously* distorting reality.

Repression

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A defense mechanism that makes an individual *forget the unacceptable*

Rationalization

A defense mechanism that makes an individual *claim a different motive for a behavior.*

Displacement

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A defense mechanism that makes an individual *shift their feelings from an object to a new object.*

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Sublimation

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A defense mechanism that makes an individual *transform vile into valuable.*

Projection

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A defense mechanism that makes an individual *attribute own faults to others.*

Reaction Formation

A defense mechanism that makes an individual *convert to the opposite emotion*

or

*behave in a way that is exactly opposite of one’s true feelings.*

Denial

A defense mechanism that makes an individual *disbelieve the present reality.*

Regression

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A defense mechanism that makes an individual *revert to an earlier, “safer” period in their life.*

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Freud's theory of psychosexual development

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includes 5 stages that span from the years of birth through the years of puberty.

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Psychosexual Stage theory

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Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

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Oral Stage

The Freudian theory of psychosexual development’s **1st stage**, from *birth to 18 months.*

• infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth

Anal Stage

The Freudian theory of psychosexual development’s **2nd stage**, from *18 to 36 months*.

• child’s pleasure involves eliminative functions

Phallic Stage

The Freudian theory of psychosexual development’s **3rd stage**, from *3 to 6 years*.

• child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals

• Oedipal complex

• castration anxiety

Latency Stage

The Freudian theory of psychosexual development’s **4th stage**, from *6 years to Puberty*.

• psychic “time-out”

• interest in sexuality is repressed

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Genital Stage

The Freudian theory of psychosexual development’s **5th stage**, in *Adolescence and Adulthood*.

• sexual reawakening

• source of sexual pleasure is someone else

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Oedipus complex

According to Freud, a boy’s intense desire to replace his father and enjoy the affections of his mother.

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humanistic perspectives

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Theoretical views of personality that stress a person’s capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities.

Trait

an enduring disposition that leads to characteristic responses, are the building blocks of personality.

Trait Theories

Theoretical views stressing that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characteristic responses.

*includes stable traits that are manifested in inconsistent patterns of behavior across situations.*

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social cognitive perspectives

Theoretical views of personality emphasizing the influence of conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals.

*not interested in traits, but investigate how more specific factors such as beliefs relate to behavior and performance.*

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behavioral genetics

The study of the inherited underpinnings of behavioral characteristics.

• twin studies reveal substantial genetic influence on Big Five traits

• most traits influenced by multiple genes

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Personality and the Brain

• brain damage alters personality

• brain responses correlate with personality

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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most widely used and researched empirically keyed self-report personality test.

• focuses on the identification of behavior patterns that are consistent with psychological disorders.

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projective test

A personality assessment test that presents individuals with an *ambiguous stimulus* and asks them to describe it or tell a story about it—to project their own meaning onto the stimulus.

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Rorschach inkblot test

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A famous projective test that uses an individual’s *perception of inkblots* to determine his or her personality.

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Type A behavior pattern

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A cluster of characteristics—including being excessively competitive, hard-driven, impatient, and hostile—related to a higher incidence of heart disease.

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Type B behavior pattern

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A cluster of characteristics—including being relaxed and easygoing—related to a lower incidence of heart disease.

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Abnormal behavior

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is a behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful.

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Deviant behavior

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is a behavior that does not conform to accepted social standards.

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Maladaptive behavior

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is a behavior that interferes with a person’s ability to function effectively in society.

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Personal distress

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involves an individual who feels troubling emotions for a prolonged period of time as a result of their behavior.

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biological approach

refers to disorder causes that are organic and internal.

This approach primarily focuses on the brain, genetic factors, and neurotransmitter functioning as the sources of abnormality.

• disorders with biological origins

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psychological approach

emphasizes the contributions of experiences, thoughts, emotions, and personality characteristics to explain psychological disorders.

• experiences, thoughts, emotions, personality

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sociocultural approach

looks to larger social contexts in which a person lives, such as gender or cultural norms.

• social context

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biopsychosocial approach

none of the factors is considered more important than another; rather, they are all considered important factors in normal and abnormal behaviors.

• interaction of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors

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the core feature

maladaptive behavior is ________________ of abnormal behavior.

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specific phobia

An anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences an irrational, overwhelming, **persistent** *fear of a particular object or situation*.

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Agoraphobia

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A person that experiences severe, paralyzing anxiety whenever they leave their home.

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Etiology of Specific Phobia

• psychological factors: learned

• biological factors: genetic disposition

Etiology of Social Anxiety Disorder

* Biological factors:
* genetic disposition
* neural circuitry development issues in adolescence
* too much serotonin
* Psychological factors:
* over-protective / rejecting parenting
* social experiences

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obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

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Psychological disorder in which the individual has **anxiety-provoking thoughts** that will not go away and/or **urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors** *to prevent or produce some future situation.*

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Obsessions

anxiety-provoking thoughts that can only be diminished by engaging in ritualized behaviors.

Those ritualized behaviors are the compulsions.

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dissociative identity disorder (DID)

Dissociative disorder in which the i*ndividual has two or more distinct personalities* or selves, each with its own memories, behaviors, and relationships; **formerly called multiple personality disorder**.

Is the most dramatic, least common, and most controversial dissociative disorder.

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Etiology of dissociative identity disorder (DID)

• extraordinarily severe abuse in early childhood

• mostly women

• runs in families (genetic?)

• lower cortical thickness and surface area

• social contagion? Probably not

schizophrenia

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Severe psychological disorder *characterized by highly disordered thought processes*; individuals suffering from this may be referred to as psychotic because they are so far removed from reality.

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hallucinations

A Positive Symptom; sensory experiences that occur in the absence of real stimuli.

delusions

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A Positive Symptom; *False, unusual, and sometimes magical beliefs* that are not part of an individual’s culture.

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thought disorder

The *unusual, sometimes bizarre thought processes* that are characteristic positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Thoughts can be so disorganized and confused that the person doesn’t make sense when they talk and write. The individual might also make up new words known as neologisms.

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referential thinking

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Ascribing **personal meaning** *to completely random events*.

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movement disorders

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The *unusual mannerisms, body movements, and facial expressions* that are characteristic positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

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flat affect

The display of *little or no emotion*—a common negative symptom of schizophrenia.

An individual who speaks with little to no emotional inflection, and maintains an immobile facial expression.

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positive symptoms

are marked by a distortion or an *excess* of normal function.

something is being added and goes beyond normal behavior.

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Negative symptoms

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are behavioral deficits and a loss or *decrease* of normal functions such as social withdrawal.

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personality disorders

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*Chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns* that are thoroughly integrated into an individual’s personality.

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borderline personality disorder (BPD)

Psychological disorder *characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability* in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions and by marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts.

• instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image & intense emotions

• self-harm, suicidal

Etiology of borderline personality disorder (BPD)

• genetic

• childhood abuse may contribute

• irrational belief one is powerless, unacceptable, and that others are hostile

• hyperviligance

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Psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) therapy assumes that abnormal functioning results from

Unconscious conflict

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Humanistic therapy assumes that abnormal functioning results from

Conscious conflict and inauthenticity

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Behavior therapy assumes that abnormal functioning results from

Learned maladaptive behaviors

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Cognitive therapy assumes that abnormal functioning results from

An individual’s thoughts and perspective

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Biological therapy assumes that abnormal functioning results from

genetic anomalies or to problems in the physical structure of the brain