EXAM 3

**Motivation**

 describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal.

Intrinsically (Intrinsic)

motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring

Extrinsically (extrinsic)

motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.

Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she often whips up pastries in the evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store’s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that changes her motivation to do it (Figure 10.3). What Odessa has experienced is called the _______________.

overjustification effect

\-------- motivation is diminished when **--------** motivation is given.

Intrinsic, extrinsic

the **overjustification effect**

intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given.

an **instinct**

 is a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned.

**drive theory** 

of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs.

if it’s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below normal. This low blood sugar will induce a physiological need and a corresponding drive state (hunger) that will direct you to seek out and consume food. Eating will eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will return to normal. Interestingly, drive theory also emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behavioral response in which we engage. This is and example of

The drive theory to bring homeostasis to the body.

Think about how much stress students experience toward the end of spring semester. They feel overwhelmed with seemingly endless exams, papers, and major assignments that must be completed on time. They probably yearn for the rest and relaxation that awaits them over the extended summer break. However, once they finish the semester, it doesn’t take too long before they begin to feel bored. Generally, by the time the next semester is beginning in the fall, many students are quite happy to return to school. This is

the theory of arousal

**Yerkes-Dodson law**

which holds that a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower.

**Self-efficacy** 

is an individual’s belief in their own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or a similar task.

Albert Bandura (1994)

theorized that an individual’s sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in motivating behavior. Argues that motivation derives from expectations that we have about the consequences of our behaviors, and ultimately, it is the appreciation of our capacity to engage in a given behavior that will determine what we do and the future goals that we set for ourselves.

if you have a sincere belief in your ability to achieve at the highest level, you are more likely to take on challenging tasks and to not let setbacks dissuade you from seeing the task through to the end. This is an example of

Self-efficacy

Abraham Maslow (1943)

proposed a **hierarchy of needs** that spans the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social. Argued that one must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing those needs that occur higher in the pyramid.

if someone is struggling to find enough food to meet their nutritional requirements, it is quite unlikely that they would spend an inordinate amount of time thinking about whether others viewed them as a good person or not. Instead, all of their energies would be geared toward finding something to eat. This is an example of

the hierarchy of needs

For most people, once they have eaten, they feel **_______**, or fullness and satisfaction, and their eating behavior stops.

satiation

The food’s passage through the gastrointestinal tract also provides important satiety signals to the brain, and fat cells release ________, a satiety hormone.

 **leptin**

The various hunger and satiety signals that are involved in the regulation of eating are integrated in the brain. Research suggests that several areas of the ______________________ are especially important sites where this integration occurs

hypothalamus and hindbrain

 A person’s **______________** is the amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time, and there is tremendous individual variability in our ------------.

metabolic rate

The _________ asserts that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, which is resistant to change.

 **set-point theory**

When someone weighs more than what is generally accepted as healthy for a given height, they are considered _________.

overweight or obese.

body mass index

 BMI

An adult with a body mass index (BMI) between _________ is considered **overweight**

25 and 29.9

An adult with a BMI of ____________ is considered **obese** 

30 or higher

Morbid obesity

 is defined as having a BMI over 40.

bulimia nervosa

engaging in binge eating behavior that is followed by an attempt to compensate for the large amount of food consumed. Purging the food by inducing vomiting or through the use of laxatives are two common compensatory behaviors.

Binge eating disorder

are not followed by inappropriate behavior, such as purging, but they are followed by distress, including feelings of guilt and embarrassment.

Anorexia nervosa

 is an eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of a body weight well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise.

have a **distorted body image**, referenced in literature as a type of body dysmorphia, meaning that they view themselves as overweight even though they are not. Is an example of

Anorexia nervosa

lesions to an area of the hypothalamus called the ----------- completely disrupt a male rat’s ability to engage in sexual behavior.

medial preoptic area

that limbic system structures such as the --------------- are especially important for sexual motivation. Damage to these areas results in a decreased motivation to engage in sexual behavior, while leaving the ability to do so intact

amygdala and nucleus accumbens

An **emotion**

is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings. Are often thought to be consciously experienced and intentional.

Mood

refers to a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur in response to something we experience. May not be consciously recognized and do not carry the intentionality that is associated with emotion

Our emotional states are combinations of physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences. Together, these are the 

**components of emotion**

The **_____________** of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal.

James-Lange theory

Recall what you have learned about the sympathetic nervous system and our fight or flight response when threatened. If you were to encounter some threat in your environment, like a venomous snake in your backyard, your sympathetic nervous system would initiate significant physiological arousal, which would make your heart race and increase your respiration rate. According to the __________, you would only experience a feeling of fear after this physiological arousal had taken place.

James-Lange theory of emotion

the **_________** of emotion was developed. According to this view, physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently.

Cannon-Bard theory

when you see the venomous snake, you feel fear at exactly the same time that your body mounts its fight or flight response. This emotional reaction would be separate and independent of the physiological arousal, even though they co-occur. This is an example of the

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

The facial feedback hypothesis

proposes that your facial expression can actually affect your emotional experience

words, if something insignificant occurs and you smile as if you just won lottery, you will actually be happier about the little thing than you would be if you only had a tiny smile. Conversely, if you walk around frowning all the time, it might cause you to have less positive emotions than you would if you had smiled. This is an example of

The facial feedback hypothesis

The **__________** of emotion is another variation on theories of emotions that takes into account both physiological arousal and the emotional experience. physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the emotional experience.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

Lazarus (1991) developed the ____________ that asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate and often unconscious.

 **cognitive-mediational theory**

cognitive-mediational theory

Return to the example of being asked to lecture by your professor. Even if you do not enjoy speaking in public, you probably could manage to do it. You would purposefully control your emotions, which would allow you to speak, but we constantly regulate our emotions, and much of our emotion regulation occurs without us actively thinking about it.

The limbic system includes the ____________.

hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus.

The hypothalamus

plays a role in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system that is a part of any given emotional reaction.

The thalamus

serves as a sensory relay center whose neurons project to both the amygdala and the higher cortical regions for further processing.

The amygdala

plays a role in processing emotional information and sending that information on

The hippocampus

integrates emotional experience with cognition

The amygdala is composed of various subnuclei, including _____________________.

the basolateral complex and the central nucleus

 The_____________ has dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain. It is critical for classical conditioning and for attaching emotional value to learning processes and memory.

 **basolateral complex**

The **______________________** plays a role in attention, and it has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity

central nucleus

A **cultural display rule** 

is one of a collection of culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of displays of emotions that are acceptable

There is substantial evidence for _______________  that are each associated with distinct facial expressions. These include: happiness, surprise, sadness, fright, disgust, contempt, and anger.

seven universal emotions

 is the expression of emotion in terms of body position or movement.

Body language

Carl mows the yard of his elderly neighbor each week for $20. What type of motivation is this?

extrinsic

 refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways.

**Personality** refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways.

Hippocrates

theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids (“humors”) of the body: choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver), melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart), and phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lungs).

Franz Gall (phrenology)

proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person’s personality traits, character, and mental abilities. these distances revealed the sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing information that could be used to determine whether a person was friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages, and so on.

Sigmund Freud

said that only about one-tenth of our mind is **conscious**, and the rest of our mind is **unconscious. Proposed that unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression.**

repression

we sometimes say things that we don’t intend to say by unintentionally substituting another word for the one we meant. You’ve probably heard of a Freudian slip, the term used to describe this. Freud suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping out of our unconscious. Speech errors such as this are quite common. Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous, or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning

id

contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex.

 develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave.

superego

 is the rational part of our personality. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others.

**ego**

Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to------------- (a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors.

 **neurosis**

Freud

believed that personality develops during early childhood: Childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults.

Adler (1937, 1956)

proposed the concept of the **inferiority complex. believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience: occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship).**

inferiority complex

refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth and don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society.

Erik Erikson

development, suggesting that an individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan—a

Carl Jung

The focus of analytical psychology is on working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one’s personality.

**collective unconscious** 

is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us

**archetypes**

are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams.

extrovert,

then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others.

introvert

then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity.

Skinner

proposed that we *learn* to behave in particular ways. We increase the behaviors that lead to positive consequences, and we decrease the behaviors that lead to negative consequences. Skinner

Bandura

agreed with Skinner that personality develops through learning. He disagreed, however, with Skinner’s strict behaviorist approach to personality development, because he felt that thinking and reasoning are important components of learning.

social-cognitive theory

 of personality that emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of individual differences in personality. the concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and self-efficacy all play a part in personality development.

reciprocal determinism

*in which cognitive processes, behavior, and context all interact, each factor influencing and being influenced by the others simultaneously*

*Cognitive processes*

 refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics.

*Behavior* 

refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished.

*context*

 in which the behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.

Julian Rotter (1966)

proposed the concept of locus of control, another cognitive factor that affects learning and personality development.

 **locus of control** 

refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. people possess either an internal or an external --------

internal locus of control (“internals”)

tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts.

external locus of control (“externals”)

tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control.

 Self-regulation

is also known as will power.

**self-concept**

our thoughts and feelings about ourselves.

 **ideal self**

is the person that you would like to be

real self

is the person you actually are

**congruence**

 when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate.

when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience

**incongruence**

**selective migration** 

is the concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs.

Self-report inventories

are a kind of objective test used to assess personality. They typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

**Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)**

first published in 1943, with 504 true/false questions,

 **projective testing**

Another method for assessment of personality is

Rorschach Inkblot Test

It is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist.

the **Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)**

The stories give insight into their social world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and goals. The storytelling format helps to lower a person’s resistance divulging unconscious personal details

**Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)**

 There are three forms of this test for use with different age groups: the school form, the college form, and the adult form. This test is similar to a word association test, and like other types of projective tests, it is presumed that responses will reveal desires, fears, and struggles.

**Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)** 

contains 20 color images that show scenes of African-American lifestyles.

**TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test**

 is another tool designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths.