Food Systems

neophilia

need to eat

neophobia

will it kill me?

when did farm amounts decrease and farm sizes increase

around 1954-1974

what did the industrial agricultural revolution lead to

exploitation of the US great plains, decreased price of food for europe’s population, european farmers out of business, dependence on fossil fuels

what did the second agricultural revolution lead to (pre-industrial)

four course crop rotation, selective breeding of sheep

what four things are special about today’s industrialized food system?

use of chemical inputs, fossil fuel powered mechanisms, upstream/downstream consolidation, increased processing of foods

what are the pre-industrial sources of chemical inputs

crop rotation, animal manure, night soil

what is an example of a modern way of developing chemical inputs, and describe it

ammonia synthesis; turning gaseous nitrogen into solid nitrogen

what are examples of upstream consolidation in the industrialized food system

growing power of input providers, farm specialization

what are examples of downstream consolidation in the industrialized food system

retailers having power over what/where gets sold, consumer brands own other brands

what is the most broad impact of agriculture (relating to ecosystems)

takes natural systems out of equilibrium

what was the health impact of agriculture

increase in zoonotic diseases

what prompted the development of agriculture in general

the birth of cities

what were the downsides to being a sedentary society, and what were the responses?

vulnerability to weather changes; trade & storage

what was special about the roman empire?

largest importer of grain, nile provided stable yields to egypt

define regional interdependence, and give an example

countries within the same area depend on imports/exports from each other; NL depends on EU imports

define sectoral interdependence, and provide an example

different economic sectors relying on each other; 30% energy and 90% water used for food system

define cross-scale interdependence, and give an example

changes at one level impact things at another level; price based on supply & demand within markets

what happens when there are more steps in the supply chain (farmer’s fate)

less money for farmers

how much of the ice-free land is used for cropland

40%

what was the chimpanzee diet/lifestyle, and why would this not be sustainable for humans?

100+ plant species, mainly fruits, mild-moderate meat consumption (more meat than us), most of their day spent looking for food, shared meat, used objects as tools; our high population limits this diet

what was the gorilla diet/lifestyle, and why would this not be sustainable for humans?

vegetables/plants 68% of their diet; humans don’t have the body to support this, colons too small, microbiome couldn’t absorb enough nutrients to keep us alive

what was the ice age diet/lifestyle, and why is this not sustainable for humans?

hunting megafauna; would only work if hunted animals had high fat content, population size makes this impossible

what is the large herbivore diet/lifestyle, and why wouldn’t this be sustainable for humans?

hunting large herbivores like bison/deer; population too high, starvation diet (lack of fats and/or carbohydrates)

what was the arctic blubber diet/lifestyle, and why wouldn’t this be sustainable for humans?

hunting marine mammals; hard to locate/kill, only some marine mammals provide enough nutrients, too high population

why did humans switch from hunting/gathering to agriculture?

hunting/gathering didn’t support large number of people (only 20-30)

around how many years ago did the population kick off?

6,000 to 2,000 years ago

what percentage of our diet needs to be from carbohydrates?

45% - 65%

what percentage of our diet needs to be from fats?

20% - 35%

what percentage of our diet needs to be from protein?

10% - 35%

what is a starvation diet?

a diet that lacks a nutrient necessary for survival

how many grasses are edible? how many do we cultivate, and how much of the annual harvested crops do they account for?

12,000 edible; 20 species cultivated, 75% harvested crops

what two species are mainly produced, and how much of the food energy do they account for?

rice & wheat; 35% global food energy

in general, how have crops changed via domestication?

increase grain retention, yield larger amounts with larger grain sizes, reduce number of leaves, increase number of fruits, sweeter taste, increased size of edible parts

what makes a crop viable for mass production?

energy density and macronutrient content

what makes a crop viable to being a staple food

short mature time (90-120 days), ripen relatively quickly, fairly high yield, long shelf-life, easily digestible and palatable, critically attributable (nutrient-dense)

what are the founder crops?

emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, lentils, peas, chickpeas, faba beans, flax

what are the upsides and downsides to grains compared to fruits and vegetables in terms of energy & nutrients?

energy dense (18x vegetables, 7x fruits), lots of carbohydrates & proteins; small amount of fats

what is compulsory fortification?

enrichment by minerals and vitamins

what are the most import cereals?

flours, rice, corn

what is the maximum amount of moisture grains can contain for short term and long term storage?

<15%; <13%

what percent of harvestable grain is available for human consumption?

<50%

what are the agricultural downsides to relying on grains?

diversity-reducing, restricted range, degradation of soil, fertilizers, greenhouse gas emissions

what was jared diamond’s opinion of agriculture, and what was smil’s counterargument?

agriculture at fault for bringing malnutrition, epidemic diseases, deep class division, and gender inequality; overlooking experiences of older societies

what was william davis’s opinion of agriculture, and what was smil’s counterargument?

wheat has killed more people than all wars combined; countries with high life expectancies also consume a lot of wheat

define agronomy

science of the relationship between crops and environment

what are photo-autotrophic organisms

make their own organic compounds from inorganic material

what are the three phases of the calvin cycle?

carbon fixation; reduction of ATP & NAHPH to produce G3P; generatemore RuBP & restart cycle

what is glucose converted into in plants, and what are their purposes?

starch; store energy, cellulose; build cells, respiration; get energy, fats; store energy

calculate the efficiency of photosynthesis

fraction of light energy converted into chemical energy

what is different between C3, C4, and CAM photosynthesis?

CO2 bonds to RuBP to produce 3-PGA; CO2 is fixed to a 4C compound; CO2 is fixed to compounds and stomata open at night

what is liebig’s law of the minimum?

growth and development of a plant is determined by the scarcest essential resource

what are the macronutrients for plants?

nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, sunlight, water, CO2

what is water vapor deficit (WVD)?

difference in vapor pressure inside and outside leaf

what is water use efficiency (WUE)?

plant mass per unit volume of water used by plants; rate of biomass produced to rate of transpiration

what type of temperatures do plants grow faster in?

higher temperatures, but within their niches

what are the pros/cons of inorganic fertilizers?

solid/liquid forms, quick results, adapted to specific plant; high environmental impacts

what are the pros/cons of organic fertilizers?

takes longer to decompose

what are the two types of strategies for farming, and what are the pros/cons of them?

monocultures; high productivity & efficiency, lower cost for farmer, easier to manage
crop rotation; interrupts pest cycles, maintains soil composition, fewer inputs, higher biodiversity

identify the yield, input use, and negative effects on the environment that monocultures, crop rotation, mixed cropping, greenhouses, and agroecology have:

high, high, high; medium-high, medium, medium; medium, low-medium, low; very high, high, medium; medium, low, low

what are the three pathways to domestication, and explain them?

directed; capture wild animals, taming/forced, selective breeding
commensal; animals attracted to humans
prey; animals hunted away from settlements, game management, extensive breeding

how long are cows pregnant for and how long do they produce milk for?

9 months; 7 months

rank vegan, low ecological cost, current diets in terms of which diet uses the least arable land, then which provides the least grams of protein (least to most)

low ecological, vegan, current; vegan, low ecological, current

define low cost livestock feeding

animals eat things humans don’t eat, use land not sustainable for humans or food production

what are the benefits of consuming blue foods

reduce nutrient deficiencies, reduce red meat overconsumption, reduce ghg emissions, contribute to employment, export revenue & nutrition

are the greenhouses atmospheres different from our atmosphere

they contain 2-3 times the current level of CO2

why is photosynthesis inefficient, and how efficient is it?

limited to visible radiation, reflect green, 37% solar irradiance available to energize, respiration further reduces; 4.6% max efficiency

what common crops does photorespiration occur?

wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, all roots tubers legumes and oil crops

what common crops does photorespiration NOT occur in?

corn, sorghum, millet, sugarcane

what is the actual photosynthetic efficiency of C3 and C4 plants?

3.5% C3; 4.3% C4

rate the total photosynthetic efficiency of the following crops in order of most to least: wheat, corn, rice, rapeseed, potatoes, sugarcane

sugarcane, potatoes, corn, rapeseed, rice, wheat

are C3 or C4 plants more water efficient?

C4

define transpiration

stomata open to let water & oxygen out and CO2 in

what happens when plants experience low VPD (vapor pressure deficit) and define what VPD is

transpiration slows down; difference in vapor pressure inside and outside leaf

what is the most commonly deficient macronutrient in crops?

nitrogen

define photorespiration

rubisco binds to oxygen instead of carbon dioxide

what is mariculture and what are the costs/benefits?

harvesting marine organisms in natural habitat; lots of pollution

what is inland aquaculture and what are the costs/benefits?

growing marine life quickly in controlled conditions; more ownership-based, lots of pollution

what is low-trophic aquaculture and what are the costs/benefits?

utilizing primary & secondary producers to feed marine life; more sustainable, require limited freshwater & land inputs

what is integrated multi-trophic aquaculture and what are the costs/benefits?

utilizing more of the food cycle to feed marine life; self-feeding ecosystem, more sustainable

what do brown, red, and green seaweed colors represent in terms of richness?

iodine; protein; minerals

what are the environmental pressures of marine food?

illegal fishing, overfishing, pollution, climate change

what are the pros and cons of chemical, organic, and biodiversity-based inputs?

high specialization, capital-intensive; specialized, capital-intensive; lower risk when high diversity & minimal soil disturbance, relies natural processes

what is the one acre fund?

a company that guides smallholder farms in kenya to fill in ecological or socio-economic necessities preventing them from success

what are numerous animals, and why are they most commonly what humans have domesticated?

digest lignocellulosic phytomass (cell walls); convenient

what farm animal is the compromise animal, and what is this?

pigs; not too small, not too large

what does body mass have to do with basal metabolism (in warm-blooded animals)?

decreases with increasing size - smaller animals need more energy per unit of weight

what are the edible/live meat ratios of chicken, pork, and beef?

60%; 55%; 40%

what percent of harvested fish is used to feed other species

11%

how many kcals does 1g of protein, carbohydrates, and fats contain?

4 kcal; 4 kcal; 9 kcal

what are the differences between globalized commodity-based economy, circular/biobased economy, alternative food systems, and landscape approach?

interchangeable raw material, low prices require high efficiency/productivity; close material & energy cycles; value based on community, specialized, found in developed economies; optimize farming based on landscape, local & regional value retention

what foods have the highest environmental impact and relative risk of mortality?

unprocessed & processed red meats

what foods do the following countries eat more than the eat-lancet’s diet’s recommendations: global, sub-saharan africa, south asia, north america

beef, starchy vegetables; starchy vegetables; starchy vegetables; beef, starchy vegetables, eggs, chicken, dairy

how do you calculate energy requirements?

REE (resting) + TEF (total during day) + PA (physical activity)

how much fiber should you eat in a day?

25g

how much of the macrominerals do you need a day, and name some?

100mg; calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, potassium

what are the differences between communicable and non-communicable diseases?

transferable; non-transferable, long-term, results of genes & environmental/behavioral factors

what are the five stages of nutrition transitions, and what stage has no country entered yet?

collecting food (hunter/gathering), famine (monocultures), receding famine (increased variety), transitioning economies (processed & animal foods), behavioral change (higher intake of fruit, vegetables, whole grains); stage 5

what are the four groups of foods increasing in level of processing, and provide examples?

unprocessed (fresh veggies), processed culinary ingredients (flour), processed foods (canned veggies), ultra-processed foods (pizza)

what are the medical differences between undernutrition, micronutrient deficiency, and obesity in terms of malnutrition?

low height/weight for age, marasmus-kwashlorkor (swelling); essential nutrients not present in adequate amounts; higher weight for height, unbalanced energy consumption/expenditure