Psych 2025 (Chapter1-5)

Plato

Children are born with innate knowledge (concrete things like animals, abstract things like love), triggered by experiences

Aristotle

Knowledge comes from experience; children’s minds are like blank tablets

John Locke

Infants are a blank slate (tabula rasa); parents shape children through instruction, reward, and discipline

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Children are born knowing justice and morality; development unfolds in stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence

Charles Darwin

Studied evolution; inspired study of children to understand human behavior

Baby Biographies

Early notes on children’s development; systematic but often subjective

G. Stanley Hall

Studied age changes; founded first English scientific journal on child development

Alfred Binet

Created the first IQ test

Sigmund Freud

Stated Childhood experiences shape adult behavior

John B. Watson

Founder of behaviorism; focused on reward and punishment in child-rearing

James Mark Baldwin

Emphasized combining theory with observation in child study

Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) Founded 1933;

promotes child welfare and development

Theory

An organized set of ideas to explain and predict development

Five Perspectives on Development Biological

Psychodynamic, Learning, Cognitive-Developmental, Contextual, Biological

Maturational Theory

Development follows a biological plan inside the body

Ethological Theory

Behaviors are adaptive for survival (crying, clinging)

Critical Period

Specific time when learning is easiest; missing it makes learning hard or impossible

Imprinting (Lorenz’s goslings)

Forming attachment to first seen caregiver

Freud – Ego Rational balance;

develops in 1st year

Freud – Superego

Moral sense of right/wrong; develops in preschool years

Freud – Oral Stage

(0–2) Pleasure from sucking/exploring with mouth

Freud – Anal Stage

(2–3) Focus on bowel control

Freud – Phallic Stage

(3–7) Notice physical differences

Freud – Latency Stage

(7–11) Energy directed into school/activities

Freud – Genital Stage

(11+) Mature sexuality emerges

Freud Impact

Early experiences matter; conflict between desire vs. rules

Erikson – Trust vs. Mistrust

(0–2) Infant learns to trust or mistrust others

Erikson – Autonomy vs. Shame

(2–3) Learn independence or feel doubt

Erikson – Initiative vs. Guilt

(3 –5) Encouragement builds initiative; discouragement causes guilt

Erikson – Industry vs. Inferiority

(5–12) School success builds confidence; failure causes inferiority

Erikson – Identity vs. Role Confusion

(12–18) Develop sense of self or confusion

Erikson – Intimacy vs. Isolation

(young adult) Form close relationships or feel isolated

Erikson – Generativity vs. Stagnation

(middle adult) Contribute to society or feel stuck

Erikson – Integrity vs. Despair

(65+) Life review leads to acceptance or regret

Pavlov –

Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus becomes associated with natural response

Watson –

little Albert Study Conditioned fear in infant by pairing rat with loud noise

Skinner

– Operant Conditioning Behavior shaped by consequences

Positive Reinforcement

Add reward (chores → allowance)

Negative Reinforcement

Remove unpleasant thing (nagging, chores)

Punishment

Decreases likelihood of behavior repeating

Variable Ratio

Schedule Reward after unpredictable responses (gambling)

Cognitive

-Developmental Perspective Focuses on how children’s thinking develops and changes

Ecological Systems

Theory Development shaped by multiple environments (Bronfenbrenner)

Microsystem

Immediate people/objects (family, school)

Mesosystem

Connections between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher relationship)

Exosystem

Indirect influences (parents’ work, community)

Macrosystem

Cultural and societal influences (values, laws)

Chronosystem

Systems change over time

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed at a task

Systematic Observation

Careful watching & recording of behavior

Naturalistic Observation

Watching in real-life setting

Structured Observation

Researcher sets up a situation to observe behavior

Observer Bias

Researcher notices only what supports hypothesis

Observer Influence

Participants change behavior when watched

Nominal Scale

Categories only (yes/no, present/absent)

Habituation

Stop responding to repeated stimulus

Inter-Rater Reliability

Agreement among observers

Cross-Sectional S

tudy Compare different ages at one time

Longitudinal Study

Study same people over long time

Microgenetic Study

Repeated testing over short time to observe change

Longitudinal-Sequential Study

Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal

Quasi-Experimental Design

Groups not randomly assigned

DNA

Molecule carrying genetic information

Chromosomes

Structures containing genes

Genes Segments of DNA,

basic unit of heredity

Alleles

Different forms of a gene

Genotype

Person’s genetic makeup

Phenotype

Observable traits

Homozygous

Two same alleles

Heterozygous

Two different alleles

Dominant Allele

Expressed trait

Recessive Allele

Only expressed if both alleles recessive

Polygenic Inheritance

Trait influenced by many genes

Epigenesis

Interaction between genes and environment

Heritability

Coefficient Measure of how much trait differences are genetic

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins

Zygote

Fertilized egg

Blastocyst

Early ball of cells

Implantation

Blastocyst attaches to uterus

Embryo Weeks

3–8; major organs form

Fetus Week

9–birth; growth and maturation

Amniotic Sac

Protective fluid-filled sac around embryo

Amniotic Fluid

Fluid that cushions and protects baby

Placenta

Provides nutrients and oxygen

Umbilical Cord

Connects fetus to placenta

Age of Viability

22–28 weeks; baby can survive outside womb

Teratogen

Anything harmful to prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, stress)

FASD (Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder)

Harmful effects from prenatal alcohol exposure

Apgar Score

Quick test at birth (heart rate, breathing, etc.)

Doula

Assistant who supports mother during birth

Hypoxia

Oxygen shortage at birth

C-Section (Caesarean Section)

Surgical delivery of baby

Postpartum Depression

Long-lasting sadness after birth

Premature Infants

Born before 37 weeks

Small-for-Date Infants

Too small for gestational age

SUID (Sudden Unexpected Infant Death)

Unexplained infant death

Reflexes

Automatic newborn responses (sucking, crying)

Kangaroo Care

Skin-to-skin care for premature babies

Swaddling

Wrapping baby snugly for comfort