VCE UNIT 2 PSYCHOLOGY EXAM REVISION

Social cognition

how we interpret, analyse, remember, and use information to make judgements about others in different social situations and the social world.

Person perception

The mental processes we used to understand and form impressions and of other people.

When we form impressions or draw conclusions about other people, we use person perception.

First impressions

Formed based on physical appearance and non-verbal cues.

Your initial thoughts on someone or something based on your first interaction and/or exposure.

Non-verbal communication

The process of sending and receiving information without using spoken or written words.

Body language

Conscious and unconscious ways our body posture and movements convey our feelings and attitudes.

Attribution

An evaluation made about the causes of behaviour and the processes of making this evaluation.

Personal attribution – explanation of behaviour due to the characteristics of the person involved.

Situational attribution – explanation due to factors external to the person involved.

Situational attribution

explanation due to factors external to the person involved.

If we attribute the behaviour to external factors, we tend to blame the situation for causing the behaviour.

Personal attribution

explanation of behaviour due to the characteristics of the person involved.

If we attribute the behaviour to internal factors, we tend to blame the person for causing the behaviour.

Attitude

An evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.

Attitudes are learned through experience.

Socio-cultural

A combination of social and cultural factors, for example the different groups in society and their habits, traditions and beliefs.

The tri-component model

According to the tri-component model, there are three main components that contribute to behaviour formation

The ABCs of attitudes

The tri-component model of attitudes is the most influential and widely used model.

 It proposes that an attitude has the following three related components:

1. Affective

2. Behavioural

3. Cognitive

The tri-component model proposes that all three components must be present, and consistent with each other, before it can be said that an attitude exists.

Affective component (ABC)

Emotional and intuitive feelings towards something reflected in our attitude.

• Positive response (liking or favouring)

• Negative response (disliking or hating)

• Neutral response (lack of interest/concern)

Behavioural component (ABC)

Outward and observable actions that reflect our point of view about something.

Cognitive component (ABC)

Thoughts and beliefs towards something.

stereotype

a collection of beliefs that we have about the people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of that group.

We use stereotypes to assist us in knowing how we should react to new people we meet.

Widely held belief and generalisations about a group, such as people animals or objects.

Stigma

A negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way.

Cognitive dissonance

The psychological tension that occurs when our thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviours do not align.

Cognitive bias

Conscious, systematic tendencies to interpret information in a way that is neither rational nor based on objective reality.

eg) • Confirmation bias • Actor-observer bias • Self-serving bias • False-consensus bias • Halo effect

Confirmation bias - CB

The tendency to search for and accept information that supports our prior beliefs or behaviours, and ignores contradictory information.

reducing CB- when you do additional research until you find something that supports your belief.

Actor-observer bias - CB

The tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors and situational causes while attributing other people’s actions to internal factors.

reducing bc - you may feel better about yourself and the contradictory behaviour.

Self-serving bias - CB

The tendency to attribute positive success to our internal character and actions and attribute our failures to external factors or situational causes.

reducing CB- You could attribute your success to your own ability/behaviour, and when unsuccessful you attribute your behaviour to external factors.

Halo effect - CB

Basing your general impressions of someone on only one aspect will reduce cognitive dissonance by removing any negative feelings or thoughts.

The tendency for the impression we form about one quality of a person to influence our overall beliefs about the person in other respects.

False-consensus bias - CB

assuming that all other people care about the same issue as you can reduce cognitive dissonance, and discomfort.

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas and attitudes as we do.

Heuristics

The information processing strategies or ‘mental shortcuts’ that enable individuals to form judgements, make decisions, and solve problems quickly and efficiently.

• rapid. • instinctive. • an automatic process.

Anchoring (adjustment) heuristic

Information-processing strategy that involves forming judgements based on the first information received about an idea or concept.

may cause the brain to make adjustments when processing additional information based on an initial judgement. These adjustments can lead to misinterpretation, but they can also save time or reduce cognitive load.

Availability heuristic

Information-processing strategy that enables individuals to form a judgement, solve a problem, or make a decision based on information that is easily accessible.

when you are required to make decisions quickly it will retrieve information that is readily available.

Representative heuristic

Information-processing strategy that involves making a categorical judgement about an idea, event, or person based on their similarity to other items in that category.

comparing an idea, event, object or person to something that we already have stored (represented) in our minds.

Affect heuristic

Information-processing strategy that involves using emotions to make a judgement, decision or problem-solve.

Using emotions to make decisions can seem like a bad thing. However, the affect heuristic can actually influence how we assess risks, and therefore positively impact our decision making and problem-solving process.

Base-rate fallacy

the tendency to focus on case-specific information and ignore comprehensive data or other background information.

prejudice 

negative preconception held against people within a certain group or social category 

characteristics of the majority group

• believe they are more superior

• believe the minority group is different to them

• believe they are more powerful

• show insecurity fearing the minority may become more powerful and important.

majority group

social group considered to have the most power in a particular place 

Minority group

social group considered to have less power compared to the majority group

Discrimination

the negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members.

when prejudice is expressed through behaviour = discrimination 

direct/indirect 

direct discrimination

can be observed when someone is being treated unfairly because of their association within a particular group 

Indirect discrimination

A practice or rule applied to all people and unfairly disadvantages one person 

mental wellbeing

an individuals current state of mind, involving the ability to think, process information and regulate emotions

self-stigma

the negative attitudes, including internalised shame that people may have on themselves. 

social stigma 

the disapproval of an individual or group based on perceived characteristics that serve to distinguish them from other members of society 

Intergenerational truma

untreated truma related stress experienced by survivors is passed onto the next generations.

how to reduce prejudice, discrimination and stigma

• education 

• law enforcement 

• media 

• advocacy 

In-group

a group that an individual identifies with or belongs to

out-group

a group that an individual does not identify with or belong to

social norms

spoken or unspoken rules and values that defines appropiate behaviour within a group

culture

the customs, behaviours, and values of a particular group in society that prioritises the needs and goals of that group. 

individualistic culture- needs/goals of individuals/independence 

collectivist cultures- needs/goals of group 

cultural norms 

rules or expectations of behaviour and thoughts based on shared beliefs within a specific cultural group

obedience

adhering to the instructions of authority figures or the laws of society 

key factors influencing obedience 

• proximity (closeness between people physically/emotionally)

• legitimacy of an authority figure (individual genuinely has power)

• group pressure (in/direct social pressure)

conformity

tendency to adjust ones thoughts, feelings or behaviours in ways that are in agreement with what is accepted behaviour at the time 

normative influence 

influence of social norms on an individual, influencing a person to act in certain ways which align with social norms. 

informational influence

influence of observable behaviours and information on an individual, influencing their behaviour in certain environments or situations. 

Social connections

The network of people available to someone for support and engagement.

reach out to the people who we know for support when we need it.

• share meaningful experiences with others.

• engage in activities with someone who shares similar interests.

Deindividuation

The tendency for individuals to lose their sense of identity and individuality within a group.

Social comparison

The tendency for humans to measure their self-worth in relation to the people around them, plays a significant role in mental wellbeing.

Subjective

Making assumptions and interpretations based on personal opinions without any evidence or verifiable facts.

Norm

Standards that usually come from the average behaviour or attitude of a larger group.

Addictive behaviours

Repetitive gratification-seeking behaviours associated with distress causing interference to everyday life.

media=dopamine loop 

Information access

how easily information can be accessed by different people. The ability to access information is important as it helps with decision making and empowers you to become an informed citizen.

The role of social media

• share information and content.

• promote brands and causes they may support.

• stay connected with family and friends.

Social media algorithms

Way of sorting posts in a users' feed based on relevancy instead of publish time. Social networks prioritise which content a user sees in their feed first by the likelihood that they'll actually want to see it.

1. put you at risk of missing information or content.

2. create disparity between the content people see.

3. increase the spread of misinformation.

Independence

Being free from the control or influence of others.

Self-determination

Engaging in behaviours without the influence of other people as an external force.

Three psychological needs:

• Autonomy – an individual’s ability to act authentically, based on individual choice. 

• Competence – the level of your skills, abilities and knowledge required to carry out challenging task

• Relatedness –the sense of attachment, connection to and belonging with other people.

Self-determination theory

Once independence is achieved, individuals are empowered to be in control of their own decisions, free from the influence of groups

Concept that people achieve self-determination when three basic psychological needs are met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Anti-conformity

A deliberate refusal to comply with social norms or standards for thoughts, feelings, or behaviours.

Reactance - motivates anti-conformity

A motivational state of distress and resistance, caused by a desire to regain personal freedom after it has been removed or threatened by external sources.

Desire for change  - motivates anti-conformity

When people who hold the belief that something is unfair, unethical or incorrect hope to bring about change.

individualisation - weakens conformity

When an individual’s identity and contributions to a group are noticeable.

Ally effect - weakens conformity

The presence of the ally leads to a reduction in the level of conformity.

Attention

Focusing our mental resources on certain information, while blocking out irrelevant information.

Selective attention

Focusing our mental resources on one stimuli at the exclusion of other stimuli.

Controlled process

A task that requires selective attention in order to be completed. Usually the task is difficult or unfamiliar.

Divided attention

Splitting attention across two or more stimuli at the one time.

Automatic process

A task that allows divided attention in order to be completed. Usually the task is easy or well-learned and requires little effort.

Sustained attention

The process of maintaining attention on one stimulus or task over an extended period of time.

Perception

The set of processes by which we organise, recognise and meaningfully interpret sensory experience. OUTPUT

Sensation

The process of capturing stimuli from the environment by our sense organs. INPUT

Bottom-up processing - perceptual experience 

Information processing where perceptual experiences are created by building larger wholes from minute aspects of sensory data.

Perception that is built up from the sensory input.

• Bottom-up processing influences your ability to analyse the various features of the stimuli and construct a meaningful interpretation from these features.

Top-down processing - perceptual experience 

Information processing where psychological, social and contextual information is applied to and influences the perception of stimuli.

Perceptions do not occur in a vacuum. • The sensory experience remains the foundation of the perception, but the perception is constructed based on additional sources of information. • How we perceive a stimuli is influenced by psychological factors, as well as social factors.

Visual sensation

involves the process of the eye receiving and responding to light from the environment.

Visual perception

involves the process of interpreting the information collected by the eye.

Biological factors that influence vision

the physical structures that allow vision to occur, including the:

• eye.

• optic nerve.

• primary visual cortex.

Photoreceptor

A cell within the retina at the back of the eye that responds to light.

Photoreceptors are light sensitive cells that respond to light, allowing it to be sensed from the external world. There are two kinds of photoreceptors in the retina – rods and cones.

Visible light spectrum

The range of frequencies of electromagnetic energy that can be sensed by the human eye.

The eye

s the organ responsible for receiving light to allow vision.

• Light enters the eye through the pupil.

• The light is then focused through the lens onto the retina.

rods - pc

• cylinder

• low levels of light 

• night vision

• no colour 

• outter edges of retina 

• peripheral vision 

cones - pc

• cone

• bright light

Optic nerve - bf influencing vp

Important in the process of transmission – information passes, neuron-to-neuron via the optic nerve, from the retina to the primary visual cortex.

psychological factors that influence visual perception: 4

• Gestalt principles • Depth cues • Visual constancies • Perceptual set

Gestalt principles

A set of rules that we apply in the process of organising and interpreting our perceptual experiences.

• figure-ground (organise visual scene by differentiating figure away from background) 

• closure (mentally fill gaps in a visual stimulus to perceive it as a complete from) 

• similarity (group objects with similar qualities) 

• proximity (group together objects close to each other)

Depth perception

The ability to interpret the world as threedimensional (3D).

comes from the activity of our cortex, which integrates information from our body and from the visual image to construct our experience of depth.

Binocular depth cues

use information from both eyes to provide information on depth. Binocular depth cues are biological factors that influence our perception.

There are two binocular depth cues:

• Retinal disparity • Convergence

BDC - Retinal disparity

Our eyes are positioned 6 to 7 cm apart.

• This means that the retinal image of the left and right eye are slightly different.

• The closer an object is to us, the greater the difference (or disparity) between the left and right retinal image,

• The further an object is from us, the less there is a difference to these retinal images.

BDC- Convergence

• As objects move closer to us, our eyes turn inwards to focus the light from the object onto our fovea (centre of the retina).

• The closer an object is to us, the more tension is placed on our orbital muscles (the muscles that control eye movement).

• The cortex processes the level of tension placed on our orbital muscles to help determine how far an object is from us.

Monocular depth cues

assist the perception of depth using information from only one eye. 

• 5 pictorial depth cues

5 pictorial depth cues

• linear perspective (parallel lines into the distance)

• relative size (objects seem larger when closer)

• interposition (overlap - object must be closer)

• texture gradient (finer detail are closer

• height in visual field

Visual constancies

Principles that help maintain the perception of the world as stable, despite changes cast onto the retinal image.

• size 

• shape 

• brightness 

Perceptual set

The predisposition to perceive an object in a way that is consistent with our expectations.

Psychological factors that influence perceptual set

• past experiences 

• motivation (more likely to perceive a stimulus in a way that is consistent with our desire.)

• emotional state 

• context