Postmodern Ethics: Epistemology, Relativism, and Moral Objectivism

What is epistemology?

A branch of philosophy that studies knowledge, asking questions about its nature and how we know what we know.

What are the primary tasks of epistemology?

To determine the nature of knowledge and the extent of human knowledge.

What does ethical relativism claim?

That all moral principles are valid relative to a particular society or individual.

What is ethical skepticism?

The view that asserts there are universally valid moral principles binding on all people.

Define moral relativism.

A meta-ethical theory asserting that morality is relative to the subject, whether that subject is society or the individual.

What is individual ethical relativism?

The belief that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the individual's own commitments.

What is cultural ethical relativism?

The belief that the rightness or wrongness of an act depends on the moral norms of society.

What is moral subjectivism?

The view that the nature of right and wrong depends on the individual's personal opinions and cannot be imposed on others.

What argument supports moral subjectivism based on disagreements?

The argument from moral disagreements states that the lack of consensus on moral issues suggests morality is relative to individuals.

What is the argument from queerness in ethics?

The argument that moral facts differ fundamentally from empirical facts and cannot exist in a purely material world without a transcendent source.

Who is John Mackie and what is his view on morality?

John Mackie was a proponent of the argument from queerness, asserting that without God, morality is subjective and invented rather than discovered.

What does the argument from the relativity of truth claim?

It claims that all truth is relative, influenced by interpretations, as seen in differing sects within Christianity.

How do moral disagreements challenge the idea of objective truth?

Disagreements do not necessarily prove there is no truth; they may indicate differing understandings of the same moral principles.

What are the three kinds of moral disagreement?

1. Factual disagreements, 2. Meaning disagreements, 3. Value disagreements.

What characterizes factual disagreements in moral discussions?

Both sides disagree about empirical facts, but share similar moral principles, making them resolvable through investigation.

What is an example of a factual disagreement?

Debating whether the death penalty is justified based on its effectiveness as a deterrent.

What defines meaning disagreements in ethics?

Disputes over the correct meaning of terms related to moral issues, such as justice or equality.

How has the understanding of marriage changed in postmodern ethics?

It has shifted from a traditional view of marriage as a union between a man and a woman to include unions regardless of sex.

What is moral conventionalism?

The belief that morality is ultimately dependent on societal norms.

What is the stance of moral subjectivism on imposing moral opinions?

It asserts that individuals cannot impose their moral opinions on others as morality is subjective.

What does the term 'disagreement of taste' imply in moral relativism?

Just as people have different tastes in entertainment, they also have differing views on what actions are right or wrong.

What is the implication of moral judgments being attitudes or preferences?

It suggests that moral judgments are subjective and vary from person to person.

What does the phrase 'man is the measure of all things' imply in moral subjectivism?

It indicates that individuals determine their own moral standards, leading to subjective morality.

What is the postmodern stance on marriage?

Marriage can be between two persons, regardless of their sex.

What does retributive justice mean?

Justice means punishing wrongdoers proportionately.

What is restorative justice?

Justice means repairing harm and reconciling relationships.

What is a significant debate regarding juvenile offenders?

Whether juvenile offenders should be punished severely or rehabilitated.

What are value disagreements in moral philosophy?

Disagreements where both sides agree on facts and definitions but prioritize different values.

What is the pro-choice position on abortion?

It favors the moral permissibility of abortion, often summarized by the slogan 'My body, my choice.'

What is the pro-life position on abortion?

It views abortion as morally impermissible, valuing the life of the child over personal career choices.

How can value disagreements be resolved?

By identifying values that enhance one's flourishing as a human being.

What is the Actor Analogy in moral philosophy?

Disagreement about a concept does not prove its nonexistence, as seen in various fields of inquiry.

What is Mackie's Argument from Queerness?

It claims that moral facts are 'queer' because they do not exist as physical objects in space and time.

How do numbers serve as examples of immaterial but objective entities?

Numbers exist independently of human opinions and cannot be altered by willpower.

What is the unchangeable nature of mathematics?

Basic rules of mathematics, like 2 + 2 = 4, cannot be changed regardless of human desire.

What is the response to the argument from the relativity of truth?

One can challenge moral subjectivists by asking if their claim of no objective truth is objectively true.

What are self-defeating statements?

Statements that cannot meet the standards they set for themselves, often seen in relativist arguments.

What role do emotions play in moral decision-making?

Feelings are essential components, providing motivations to act morally.

How are reason and emotion viewed in ethical thinking?

They are complementary, both playing important roles in identifying what is valuable.

What is emotivism in moral philosophy?

The view that moral judgments are expressions of the speaker's emotions rather than factual claims.

What challenge does globalization pose to universal morality?

It raises doubts about the universality of human rights, suggesting they may be Western inventions.

How do feelings and emotions differ in moral contexts?

Feelings are mental reactions that can last longer, while emotions are immediate physiological responses.

What is the difference between subjective and objective emotions?

Subjective emotions are personal and learned, while objective emotions are universal and instinctual.

What is the significance of moral judgments?

They express personal feelings and are influenced by individual preferences.

What is the role of the neo-cortex in emotions?

It triggers mental reactions to emotions, which arise after the body processes an emotion.

What are some examples of emotions?

Sadness, love, resentment, guilt, anxiety, loneliness, excitement, fear, disgust, anger, joy.

What is the main argument of moral conventionalism?

Morality is a cultural invention that societies create for survival.

Who primarily supports moral conventionalism?

Anthropologists who study the diversity of moral rules across cultures.

How does Inuit culture view the end of life for the elderly?

Elders are expected to end their lives in front of relatives, which is celebrated as an honorable transition.

What is the outsider's perspective on the Inuit practice regarding the elderly?

It may appear violent or disrespectful.

What is the insider's perspective on the Inuit practice regarding the elderly?

Elders willingly accept death as a graduation to another life.

What does moral conventionalism argue about practices that seem wrong to outsiders?

Such practices may be vital for survival within that culture.

What is ethnocentrism?

The prejudicial view of interpreting reality through the lens of one's own cultural beliefs.

How does moral conventionalism counter ethnocentrism?

It asserts that all cultures are equal and no culture has the right to impose its values on another.

What virtue does moral conventionalism promote?

Tolerance, as it values open-mindedness and acceptance of diverse worldviews.

What is a critique of moral conventionalism regarding universal moral principles?

It cannot justify all cultural practices as morally acceptable, especially harmful ones.

What is the contradiction in moral conventionalism's stance on ethnocentrism?

If morality is relative to societies, then a society that believes in ethnocentrism must also be respected.

What is a key objection to moral conventionalism related to human rights?

It undermines the concept of universal human rights, as societies could accept practices like slavery.

What historical movements rely on the belief in universal human rights?

Movements for racial equality, opposition to slavery, and fights against discrimination.

What does moral conventionalism deny regarding core values?

It denies the universality of justice, love, fairness, and equality, viewing them as cultural inventions.

What is the implication of moral conventionalism on social reformers?

It suggests that social reformers are immoral for defying their society's moral code.

Why is the idea that justice is only relative considered a moral mistake?

Because rational human beings recognize some values as binding regardless of cultural differences.

What is the moral requirement that overrides self-interest according to the critique of moral conventionalism?

Justice is a moral requirement that societies cannot thrive without.

What do moral conventionalists believe about cultural diversity?

They believe that cultural diversity means each society should determine its own moral standards.

What is the natural mantra of the moral conventionalist?

'Live and let live.'

What is the response to the argument for tolerance in moral conventionalism?

To advocate for tolerance as a universal value contradicts the denial of universal moral principles.

What does moral conventionalism suggest about condemning harmful practices?

It struggles to consistently criticize harmful practices accepted by a society.

What is the problem with promoting tolerance in moral conventionalism?

If one society believes in intolerance, the relativist must accept that as right for that society.

What is the consequence of moral conventionalism on moral progress?

Without universal rights, moral progress cannot be judged as unjust, making it impossible.

What does the critique of moral conventionalism suggest about the foundations of moral life?

It erodes the foundations by treating indispensable values as optional.

What is the main argument against moral relativism presented in the Ted Bundy Test?

If moral relativism is true, we cannot legitimately condemn Bundy's actions, reducing moral judgments to mere personal preferences.

What does T. M. Scanlon argue about moral relativism?

Scanlon argues that relativism threatens our sense of legitimate condemnation of certain actions.

What is a reductio ad absurdum argument in the context of moral relativism?

It asserts that if a theory leads to an absurd conclusion, such as not being able to condemn Bundy's murders, then the theory must be false.

What are the implications of moral relativism taken to extremes?

It could lead to a world where stealing, rape, and killing for fun are normalized, which is unlivable.

What do relativists expect from society despite their beliefs?

They expect to be treated justly, have their rights recognized, and for others to follow laws that ensure security and order.

What is moral objectivism?

The view that there are moral facts and true moral claims that exist independently of our beliefs about right and wrong.

What is moral absolutism?

The belief that there are non-overrideable moral principles that one ought never violate, exemplified by Immanuel Kant's philosophy.

What is the difference between moral objectivism and moral absolutism?

Objectivism allows for moral principles to be weighed against each other, while absolutism holds that some principles are always binding.

What are prima facie duties according to William D. Ross?

Duties that are binding only initially and can be overridden by more urgent duties.

What is the argument from intuition in favor of moral objectivism?

It posits that normal people recognize certain acts, like genocide, as objectively immoral, regardless of personal opinions.

How does the argument from epistemic realism challenge moral relativism?

It suggests that both objectivists and relativists assume objective epistemic duties, which are difficult to justify under relativism.

What is the phenomenology of moral disagreement?

It refers to the common presupposition that there is an objective truth about moral issues that can resolve disagreements.

What is the significance of Ted Bundy's reasoning in the context of moral relativism?

Bundy's reasoning exemplifies the dangers of moral relativism, as it allows for justifying heinous acts based on subjective values.

What does moral subjectivism claim?

It asserts that morality depends on personal or cultural beliefs, making moral judgments subjective.

What does Kant argue about lying in moral absolutism?

Kant argues that lying is always morally wrong, even in situations where it could save a life.

What is the burden of proof in the debate between moral relativism and objectivism?

Moral relativism bears the burden of proof to demonstrate its validity, while moral objectivism is considered more intuitive.

What is the role of laws in the context of moral relativism?

Laws assume universal standards of justice and fairness, which contradicts the relativist view that morality is subjective.

How does moral objectivism view moral principles?

It holds that moral principles have universal, objective validity and can apply to all people and situations.

What is the implication of moral relativism on societal norms?

If accepted, it could undermine the foundation of laws and ethical standards, leading to chaos in moral judgment.

What is the relationship between moral duties and personal inconvenience?

True morality often requires sacrifice and personal inconvenience, indicating that it is not merely about convenience.

What does the argument from moral disagreement suggest about moral truths?

It implies that disagreements about moral issues indicate a belief in an objective truth that exists beyond personal opinions.

What is the significance of the phrase 'moral blindness' in the context of moral objectivism?

It suggests that individuals like Hitler, who commit atrocities, are morally deficient rather than evidence against objective moral truths.

What does the term 'moral principles' encompass in moral objectivism?

It encompasses universal moral principles that are valid for all people, regardless of cultural or individual beliefs.

How do moral objectivists view epistemic duties?

They see epistemic duties as a subset of moral duties, which are universally applicable in moral discussions.

What is a major concern of those against the death penalty?

The imperfection of the justice system may lead to the execution of an innocent person.

What moral principle do opponents of the death penalty appeal to?

It is unjust to punish an innocent person with death.

What do proponents of the death penalty argue is the only proportionate penalty for heinous crimes?

Death.

What is the Argument from the Phenomenology of Moral Disagreement?

Both sides of the death penalty debate rely on assumptions they consider objective moral facts to persuade the other side.

What does moral responsibility entail?

Individuals are bound to fulfill their moral duties regardless of personal desires.

Why is moral accountability important?

It allows us to praise good actions and condemn wrong ones, which requires universal moral standards.