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What is cell culture?

The process of growing cells under controlled conditions, typically outside their natural environment, using a nutrient-rich medium.

List common types of cell culture.

Primary cell culture, continuous cell lines, stem cell culture, 3D cell culture, and organ culture.

List some common materials and requirements of cell culture.

Sterile environment, growth media, incubator (37°C, 5% CO₂ for human cells), petri dishes or flasks, and antibiotics.

What are the steps in the cell culture process of a stem cell?

Isolate stem cells, place in a sterile culture flask with nutrient medium, incubate under optimal conditions, monitor and change media regularly, and subculture when cells reach confluency.

What is the origin of HeLa cells?

Cervical cancer cells taken from Henrietta Lacks in 1951 without her consent.

Describe the importance of HeLa cells in medical biotechnology research.

Crucial in developing the polio vaccine and in cancer, AIDS, and gene mapping research, and testing effects of radiation and drugs.

What are some ethical issues of HeLa cells?

Lack of informed consent, no compensation to the family, and raises issues about ownership of genetic material and privacy.

What are stem cells?

Undifferentiated cells capable of dividing and developing into various specialized cell types.

What are the two different types of stem cells?

Embryonic stem cells (pluripotent) and adult stem cells (multipotent).

What are the applications of stem cells?

Regenerative medicine, drug testing, and understanding disease development.

What are the benefits of stem cell use in modern medicine?

Potential to cure diseases, reduces the need for organ donors, and can regenerate tissues.

What are the challenges of stem cell use in modern medicine?

Ethical concerns (especially embryonic), immune rejection, and tumor formation risk.

What are the ethical issues of using stem cells?

Destruction of embryos, consent from donors, inequality in access to treatments, and religious/cultural beliefs.

What is the difference between communicable and non-communicable diseases?

Communicable diseases can spread between people; non-communicable diseases cannot.

Name the types of pathogens.

Bacteria, viruses, protists, and fungi.

How are pathogens spread?

Airborne, direct contact, contaminated water/food, and vectors.

Identify examples of vector-borne diseases.

Malaria, Dengue fever, Lyme disease.

Why is it important to defend the human body?

To protect against harmful pathogens that can cause disease and disrupt bodily functions.

Explain the 1st line of defense.

Skin: barrier to pathogens; Mucus: traps pathogens; Tears: contain enzymes; Stomach acid: kills ingested pathogens.

Explain how the 2nd line of defense works.

Phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens; Fever slows down pathogens; Inflammation increases blood flow; Interferons interfere with viral replication.

Describe how inflammation and fever are involved in human defense.

Inflammation: blood vessels dilate, white cells enter tissues; Fever: hypothalamus raises body temperature to inhibit pathogens.

How is the 3rd line of defense specific?

Targets particular antigens with specialized lymphocytes (B and T cells).

Explain the role of B and T cells.

B-cells: produce antibodies and memory cells; T-cells: kill infected cells, activate other immune cells.

What is an antigen?

A molecule (often protein) on the surface of a pathogen that triggers an immune response.

What is the difference between T-cells and B-cells

T-cells: destroy infected cells directly; B-cells: produce antibodies to neutralize pathogens.

How does vaccination lead to immunity?

Introduces a harmless form of antigen, immune system makes memory B-cells, quick and strong response if exposed again.

What is the effect of HIV on the immune system?

HIV infects and destroys helper T-cells, weakening the immune system.

Compare primary and secondary immune responses.

Primary: slower, fewer antibodies; Secondary: faster, more antibodies due to memory cells.

What are the advantages and limitations of antibiotics?

Advantages: Treat bacterial infections effectively; Limitations: Don’t work on viruses, side effects, allergic reactions, resistance over time.

Discuss the consequences of global vaccination decline.

Outbreaks of preventable diseases, herd immunity weakened, increased mortality.

What are the steps in the immune response to the COVID-19 vaccine?

Vaccine introduces spike protein or mRNA, Antigen-presenting cells process it, B and T cells activate, Antibodies produced, Memory cells formed.

Compare traditional vs. mRNA vaccines.

Traditional: use weakened or inactivated virus; mRNA: gives body genetic instructions to make viral protein; mRNA is faster to produce and doesn’t use live virus.

Understand bacterial resistance.

Bacteria evolve to survive antibiotics due to overuse or misuse.

Differentiate between Bacteriostatic vs. Bactericidal.

Bacteriostatic: stop bacteria from growing; Bactericidal: kill bacteria directly.

Broad vs. Narrow spectrum antibiotics

Broad-spectrum: affect many bacteria types; Narrow-spectrum: target specific bacteria.

How does antibiotic resistance transfer?

Vertical: passed to offspring; Horizontal: transfer between bacteria (e.g., via plasmids).

Why is antibiotic resistance significance important

Antibiotic resistance threatens modern medicine, leads to untreatable infections and increased healthcare costs