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Consciousness
Awareness of internal and external experiences.
Sleep
A natural, recurring state of rest for the body and mind.
Biological Rhythms
Natural cycles that regulate physiological processes.
Circadian Rhythm
A 24-hour cycle that regulates biological processes like sleep.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
A cluster of neurons in the brain responsible for regulating circadian rhythms.
Melatonin
A hormone that promotes sleep by regulating circadian rhythms.
Sleep Regulation
The biological and environmental factors controlling sleep.
Sleep Debt
The cumulative shortfall between the sleep needed and the actual sleep received.
Sleep Rebound
The recovery of sleep lost due to sleep debt.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep
A stage of sleep associated with vivid dreams and rapid eye movements.
Non-REM Sleep
A phase of sleep not associated with rapid eye movement.
Dreaming
A phenomenon occurring most often during REM sleep involving vivid experiences.
Evolutionary Adaptation
The biological changes that improve survival in response to environmental demands.
Cognitive Benefits
Positive effects on the mind, such as improved memory and decision-making.
Growth and Repair
Biological processes, especially during sleep, that help restore the body and brain.
Treatments for Disorders
Various therapies or methods to alleviate symptoms of sleep disorders.
Insomnia
Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorder
Disruptions in sleep patterns caused by misalignments in the internal clock.
Parasomnia
Abnormal behaviors during sleep (e.g., sleepwalking).
Sleep Apnea
A disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.
Reflex
An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus.
Instinct
Innate behaviors that are typically triggered by specific stimuli.
Learning
The process of acquiring new knowledge or behaviors.
Associative Learning
Learning that occurs when two events are connected.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus.
Acquisition
The initial phase of learning where a response is established.
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.
Stimulus Generalization
Responding similarly to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
Learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences.
Law of Effect
A principle that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
Positive Punishment
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
Negative Punishment
Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior.
Shaping
Gradually reinforcing behavior that increasingly resembles the desired behavior.
Encoding
The process of converting information into a form that can be stored.
Automatic Processing
Encoding that occurs without conscious effort.
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires conscious effort and attention.
Self-Reference Effect
The tendency to remember information better when it's personally relevant.
Storage
The retention of encoded information over time.
Sensory Memory
Brief retention of sensory information.
Short-Term Memory
A limited capacity memory system that holds information temporarily.
Working Memory
A part of short-term memory that actively processes information.
Rehearsal
Repetition of information to aid in memory retention.
Long-Term Memory
A relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of information.
Semantic Network
A model of memory that links concepts based on meaning.
Explicit Memory
Memories that can be consciously recalled, like facts.
Implicit Memory
Memories that are not consciously recalled, like skills.
Retrieval
The process of accessing stored information.
Recall
Retrieving information without cues.
Recognition
Identifying previously learned information from a set of options.
Normative Approach
A perspective that looks at typical developmental patterns across people.
Developmental Milestones
Key achievements in growth during childhood or other life stages.
Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development
Debate over whether development occurs gradually or in distinct stages.
Universal vs. Ecological Development
Whether development is the same across all cultures or influenced by specific environments.
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate over the influence of genetics vs. environment in development.
Stages of Prenatal Development
The stages through which a fetus develops (germinal, embryonic, fetal).
Teratogen
An agent or factor that causes malformation in an embryo.
Newborn Reflexes
Innate responses seen in newborns like sucking or grasping.
Temperament
A child's characteristic mood and emotional response.
Adolescence
The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood.
Puberty
The phase during which a child matures sexually and physically.
Emerging Adulthood
A developmental stage in late adolescence into the 20s marked by exploration and instability.
Stress
A response to a perceived threat or challenge.
Stressor
An event that causes stress.
Primary Appraisal
The initial assessment of whether a situation is threatening.
Secondary Appraisal
Assessing one's ability to cope with the stressor.
Eustress
Positive stress that motivates.
Distress
Negative stress that overwhelms.
Fight-or-Flight Response
The body's automatic reaction to perceived danger, preparing it for action.
Chronic Stress
Long-term stress that can lead to negative health effects.
Cortisol
A hormone released during stress, influencing several bodily functions.
Emotion-Focused Coping
Managing emotional responses to stress.
Problem-Focused Coping
Addressing the source of stress directly.
