AP Psychology Unit 2: COGNITION

encoding

processing of information into the memory system- for example, extracting meaning

storage

retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing

long-term memory

relatively permanant and limitedless storehouse of the memory system

flashbulb memory

clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

working memory

newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention conscious effort

rehearsal

conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

visual encoding

encoding of picture images

acoustic encoding

encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

semantic encoding

encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

imagery

mental pictures; powerful aid to effortful processing

mnemonics

memory aids; like vivid imagery

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; sounds can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

amnesia

loss of memory

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

hippocampus

neural center that is located in limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage

recall

measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

recognition

measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned

relearning

memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before"

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

proactive interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Parallel Processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, doing many things at once

Primacy Effect

This is the tendency for the first items presented in a series to be remembered better or more easily, or for them to be more influential than those presented later in the series.

Declarative Memory

It refers to memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and events.

Procedural Memory

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things.

Episodic Memory

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences.

State Dependent Memory

Learning that takes place in one situation or "state" is generally better remembered later in a similar situation or state.

memory

the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts, events, impressions, etc., or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

in the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation (a.k.a functional fixedness)

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

language

A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning

Galton

1st to suggest intelligence was inherited. Intelligence based on muscle strength, size of head, reaction time, etc.

Lewis Terman

used intelligence test for tracking in the military and later studied gifted children, believed in eugenics

Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence

Spearman

proposed that general intelligence is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis (he made up factor analysis) - g factor

Gardner

wanted to broaden definition of intelligence, created 8 types of intelligence (Logical Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, body kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (others), and naturalist)

Binet

published first useful test of general mental ability; broke kids up into 'bright' and 'dull' by how they compared with both their chronological age and mental age (IQ= Mental Age/Chronological Age x100)