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Empirical approach
Approach using experimental processes
Critical thinking
Thinking that examines assumptions, identifies and separates hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusion.
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after someone knows the results, that they knew it would have happened
Peer reviewers
People who evaluate work
Theory
Something supported by evidence
Hypothesis
An educated guess before any research has been done; a prediction
Operational definition
A statement of exact procedures done in a process so that others can replicate it to validate results
Replication
The repetition of a study to see if the results can be applied to other populations and circumstances
Case study
Study of one individual in great detail
Naturalistic observation
Secret observations in a completely natural environment
Survey
Method of obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a specific group
Sampling bias
When a sample is not representative of the population
Random sample
A sample that represents a population fairly and equally
Population
Everyone in a group being studied
Correlation
Technique used to measure a relationship between two variables
Correlation coefficient
Measures the relationship strength between two variables between -1 and 1
Variable
Anything that can vary and is ethical to measure
Scatterplot
A graph of clustered dots that represent values
Illusory correlation
Perceiving a relationship where it doesn’t exist
Regression towards the mean
Tendency for extreme scores to regress towards the average
Experiment
A way of confirming the validity of a result with consistent results
Experimental group
Group that is getting experimented on
Control group
Group that is not being experimented on
Random assignment
Subjects are randomly placed in control/experimental group to eliminate bias
Double-blind procedure
A study where neither the participants nor the researchers know which treatment a group is receiving (less likely to be biased)
Placebo effect
When the expectations of a participant in a study can influence their behavior
Independent variable
The manipulated variable
Confounding variable
Factors that can cause difference between groups
Dependent variable
Unchanged variable
Validity
The assumption that the experiment measures what it is supposed to and the results are accurate
Quantitative research
Research in numbers
Qualitative research
Research in words
Informed consent
Giving participants information about a study and let them decide if they want to participate
Debriefing
The explanation of a study when it is over
Descriptive statistics
Numerical data used measure and describe characteristics of a group
Histogram
A bar graph depicting frequency distribution
Mode
Most frequently occurring score
Median
The middle score
Mean
The average score
Skewed distribution
Unsymmetrical data due to an extreme outlier
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest score
Standard deviation
The average difference between each score
Normal curve
Bell curve - 1 SD = 68%, 2 SD = 95%
Inferential statistics
Numerical data that allows us to inference if the result can be applied to a larger population
Meta-analysis
A procedure that statistically combines the result of many different studies
Statistical significance
How likely it is that the result occurred by chance
Effect size
The strength of a relationship between 2 or more variables