Elizabethan government

how many times was parliament called during Elizabeth’s reign + what was the function

thirteen times during her 44-year reign

• Summoning was at Elizabeth’s discretion → she controlled timing, agenda

• Passed key legislation: Act of Uniformity (1559), Act of Supremacy (1559)

• Handled taxation / subsidy bills to fund wars (e.g., 1588 Armada funding)

balance:Parliament was important for legality and finance, but its influence was ultimately constrained by Elizabeth

MPs

only 10% of MPs spoke in debates and on average only 47% voted

reinforcing the idea that real political power remained with the monarch.

highlights elizabeth’s strength preserving royal supremacy while still allowing Parliament to function when necessary.

Privy council

to advise the monarch on policy

to ensure orderly government and the security of the state ,

to manage crown finances and parliament

enforce the 1559 religious settlement

a maximum of 20 members met three times a week at the start of her reign and daily by the 1590s

William Cecil

created Lord Burghley in 1571 so either name can be used refer to him as cecil before 1571

similarly Robert was created 1st Earl of Leicester in 1564

Burghley and the spanish war

after 1585 Burghley had to cope with the financial burden caused by the war with spanish war whilst his own health was declining

Cecil contributions

*drafted all of Elizabeth’s correspondence with foreign ambassadors and agents particularly between 1558 and 1572 when he was principal advisor

*created an intelligence service at home

• continuing a prudent economic policy cutting government expenditure , saving from extraordinary revenue and selling crown lands which ensured England could survive the costs of war in the 1580s

Successes of Cecil

most trusted advisor and the "stabiliser" of her regime, serving as Secretary of State from 1558 and later as Lord Treasurer from 1572. His successes spanned administration, foreign policy, finance, and parliamentary management.

As Lord Treasurer, Cecil continued prudent reforms that allowed Elizabeth to pay off Mary I’s £300,000 debt and build a reserve of £300,000 by 1585

Tactics Elizabeth used to control her council

• promoted divisions to maintain loyalty

• Elizabeth displayed anger&violence - excluded Leicester and Walsingham(1581) from court

executed Norfolk in 1572 for treason - and sussex in 1562

the division on marriage

1567 - the council splits over Elizabeth’s decision to marry catholic archduke Charles of Austria , Elizabeth’s ministers speak their mind but know Elizabeth will make her own decision , Leicester works desperatley to prevent this match (he was rejected and prevented marriage to maintain his position) Norfolk,sussex and Cecil are in favour of the marriage in the end she does not marry him due to the division

Protestant rebels in the Netherlands

1578 - the council is divided on whether to give military aid to the protestant rebels in their fight against spain - Leicster,Walsingham and Burghley urging against it develops into a personal contest for power for political power as the council forms two distinct groups

Mary Queen of Scots

8 February 1587

Mary was the focus for Catholic plots (Ridolfi, Throckmorton, Babington). Her execution permanently removed a dynastic alternative to Elizabeth.

Impact on government:
Elizabeth’s position was made more secure, allowing her government to act more confidently against Catholics and foreign threats without fear of legitimising rebellion in Mary’s name.

Executing an anointed queen was unprecedented. Elizabeth had previously avoided this to maintain her image as a merciful and legitimate monarch.

was the privy council effective

• Elizabeth maintained control in her privy council until the 1590s

• capable ministers - political competence and therefore Elizabeth allowed to choose the best advice

• no one councillor ever had all complete control

• The religious settlement was put forward very early in her reign (1559)

• Spanish Armada (1580s)

• Mary queen of Scots is contained as a threat and eventually executed

was the privy council not effective

• she was never married - succession

• personal bias got in the way - Leicester prevented two marriages

• 1590s the privy council ceases to be effective due to death

• Elizabeth loses her grip in the 1590s due to age and waning power

• disputes between robert cecil and essex begin to dominate

did factional rivalries exist

*Council experienced some factional rivalrie between Lecister and Cecil ad they disagreed on politcal matters such as marrage

• 1590s clashes between the young Cecil and Essex

• Influence of traditional conservatives was reduced after the execution of Norfolk

Political nation

are those that have power - the people at the top of the political establishment (those who sit in parliament,peers) the people with influence

facts parliament

11 out of the 14 parliaments ask for money

438 acts are passed - the most integral are the religious settlements and poor laws

Opposition in parliament

28 Jan- May 1559

a bill was introduced by the queen and council to restore royal supremacy over England

Parliament initially refused to sign this bill

Opposition came from puritans who wanted a more calvinist church

Elizabeth responded by imprisoning John White and Thomas Watson after their public disputes with protestants all but one bishop refused to accept the religious settlement and were replaced in 1559

Elizabeth decreased the House of Lords so by 1603 the number had decreased to 55 (small under the queens control)

The royal prerogative

Certain things she considered to be her prergorative (things that were not to be discussed) marriage and succession

Peter wentworth 1576 imprisoned as he asked for a named successor

Golden speech

1601 - acknowledges she has lost control over parliament

The speech followed a significant breakdown in relations between Elizabeth and Parliament over the issue of monopolies. In 1601, the Crown was desperately short of cash to fund the ongoing war against Spain, but MPs were highly agitated by the high consumer prices caused by the Queen's granting of monopolies

Ridolfi plot

1571

Following Elizabeth's excommunication, this high-level conspiracy involved the Duke of Norfolk, the Pope, and King Philip II of Spain in a plan to replace Elizabeth with Mary Stuart.

return of Mary queen of scots

1568

Mary’s flight into England turned a theoretical dynastic threat into a concrete political crisis, as she became a legitimate Catholic figurehead for those wishing to overthrow the Elizabethan settlement.

Smallpox scare and the concern of legitimacy

The most persistent threat to government stability was the lack of a clear, secure heir, which left the regime vulnerable to internal plotting and foreign intervention.

• The 1563 Smallpox Scare: Elizabeth nearly died of smallpox in 1563, which sparked a panic in the Privy Council and Parliament as there was no named successor to the throne.

Excommunication

1570 Papal Bull of Excommunication: Pope Pius V issued Regnans in Excelsis, which formally deposed Elizabeth and ordered her Catholic subjects to withdraw their obedience, effectively turning religious belief into an act of political treason.

loss of key ministers

Between 1588 and 1591, Elizabeth lost her most trusted and experienced advisors, including Leicester (1588), Walsingham (1590), and Hatton (1591)

new generation of factional rivalries

A fierce and personal rivalry emerged between Robert Cecil (Burghley’s son) and Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex.

• Problematic Faction-Fighting: Unlike the earlier rivalries, this conflict became bitter and personal, making governance difficult. Essex was ambitious, temperamental, and sought to control all royal patronage for his own followers

1590s

elizabeth temper

In 1576, she imprisoned MP Peter Wentworth in the Tower of London for raising the issue of royal succession against her orders in Parliament

to maintain authority and discourage defiance. 

• Maintenance of Order:

A primary measure of effectiveness was the relative lack of large-scale rebellion; for example, despite widespread harvest failures and high food prices, the 1596 Oxfordshire rebellion attracted only four rebels, suggesting that government relief and control measures were functioning

regional authority

The Council of the North and the Council of the Marches of Wales were effective in extending royal authority into distant regions, serving as administrative and judicial tools to enforce central policies

reluctance

: Following the 1569 Northern Rebellion, local officials were so reluctant to carry out mass executions that while Elizabeth ordered 700 executions, only about 450 were actually completed

Essex rebellion

The Essex Rebellion took place in February 1601

he rebellion was driven by the deteriorating position of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, who had previously been a prominent court favourite Several specific factors led to the uprising:

• Failures in Ireland: In 1599, Essex was sent to Ireland to suppress Tyrone’s Rebellion but failed significantly, disobeying orders by avoiding a confrontation with Tyrone and eventually agreeing to an unauthorised truce67.

• Loss of Favour: Upon his return, he burst into the Queen’s bedchamber without permission, leading to his house arrest and dismissal from all offices

essex rebellion uprising

essex was forced to surrender

Desperate and in debt, Essex attempted an armed coup in London intended to remove Robert Cecil and his other enemies from power Along with roughly 300 supporters, including the Earls of Southampton, Bedford, and Rutland, he sought to capture the Queen and force her to restore him to his former offices

Essex was tried and executed for treason on 25 February 1601

• Cecil's Supremacy: His death left the Robert Cecil faction supreme for the remaining years of Elizabeth’s reign

collapse of the old guard

primary catalyst for destabilisation was the loss of Elizabeth’s most experienced and able ministers in quick succession

• The deaths of the Earl of Leicester (1588), Sir Francis Walsingham (1590), and Sir Christopher Hatton (1591) left a vacuum of talent and experience

• Elizabeth’s refusal to allow the aging William Cecil (Lord Burghley) to retire, despite his declining health, forced his son, Robert Cecil, to take on an immense administrative burden, which further fueled resentment from rivals

• By 1597, the Council had shrunk to just 11 members, and the absence of senior noblemen meant it no longer represented a broad consensus of England's most powerful families

Elizabeths fundamental role

Royal Prerogative: Elizabeth held absolute authority over "matters of state," including foreign policy, her marriage, and the succession. Her ministers could initiate and devise policy, but the "final decision remained a royal prerogative".

• Controlling the Council: She rarely met with the Privy Council as a whole, preferring to deal with ministers like William Cecil or Leicester individually to maintain her advantage.

• The "Game" of Courtship: She used the "game of courtship" as an effective tool of policy, forcing politicians to "pretend to be in love with the queen" to succeed at court.

• Procrastination as Power: Her characteristic "dithering" and procrastination—over issues like the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, or intervention in the Netherlands—often drove her ministers to "distraction," yet it confirmed that no major action could be taken without her specific consent

• Elizabeth’s power began to wane in the 1590s

the role of ministers

While Elizabeth was the final arbiter, her ministers—particularly William Cecil (Lord Burghley)—were the "dynamos" who kept the government running.

• William Cecil’s Influence: Described by the Spanish ambassador as "the man who does everything," Cecil dominated the Council for decades. He was responsible for drafting correspondence, managing Parliament, and creating an intelligence service.

• Managing Parliament: Councillors acted as "floor managers," preparing the Crown’s legislative program and steering bills through the House of Commons.

Privy Council handled day-to-day governance, including local administration and enforcement of policy