Psychology - Approaches

introspection

it is the process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states, allowing us to observe our ‘inner world’e

example of introspection

Wundt asked participants to describe their inner mental processes (emotions + thoughts) and to report on these in terms of their intensity, quality or duration and asks them to describe these again when presented with a controlled stimulus (auditory tone or visual image)

structuralism

breaking down behaviors such as sensation (the experiences from our sense organs) and perception (what our brain does with this information) into their basic elements

GENERAL STRENGTHS of Wundt’s experiment into introspection

1. scientific - made recordings under strictly controlled conditions like using the same stimulus

2. easy to compare and to establish general theories

research support (STRENGTHS of Wundt’s experiment into introspection)

teenagers were given beepers that went off during random times throughout the day, requiring them to write down their thoughts and feelings

GENERAL LIMITATIONS of Wundt’s experiment into introspection

1. unreliable - cannot truly see what someone is thinking or perceiving so results cannot be proven or disproven. behaviorists argue it is better to study behavior as it is measurable and observable

2. feelings are very subjective

3. cannot be sure that the experiences reported are accurate as it is possible to deliberately distort and inaccurately describe experiences

assumptions of behaviorist approach (X4)

1. humans are born as ‘Tabula Rasa’ (blank slate) - the environment shapes our behaviour

2. all behaviour is learnt through classical conditioning (learning through association) or operant conditioning (learning through rewards and punishments)

3. only observable behaviours studied and not focused on thoughts, attitudes or feelings

4. valid to study the behaviour of animals as they share the same principles of learning

classical conditioning

learning through association

classical conditioning steps

UCS → UCR

UCS + NS → UCR

CS → CR

Ivan Pavlov’s test

investigated the saliva reflexes in dogs i.e.

1. before conditioning, food is a natural stimulus to the dog and so a UCS which causes the production of saliva = UCR

2. the NS of the bell is paired with the arrival of food (UCS) and over time an association is formed

3. the bell becomes the CS after the association and so the dog begins to salivate (CR)

operant conditioning

learning through rewards and punishments

Skinner’s box experiment (3x variables)

1. at one side of the cage was a lever and a dispenser, and every time the lever was pressed by the hungry rat, a pellet of food appeared (REWARD)

2. a loud noise was played and the lever stopped this (NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT)

3. the lever delivered an electric shock (PUNISHMENT)

positive reinforcement

receiving a reward when certain behaviour is preformed e.g. receiving a sticker

negative reinforcement

when behaviour is performed to avoid something unpleasant e.g. following rules

punishment

an unpleasant consequence of behaviour e.g. detention

continuous reinforcement

every single response is rewarded (the most effective in establishing a response initially)

partial/variable reinforcement

the response is not rewarded every time, but maybe every 10th time (most effective in maintaining a response and avoiding extinction e.g. gambling)

GENERAL STRENGTHS of behaviourist approach

can be credited for its scientific and highly controlled methods e.g. Skinner’s box - manipulated consequences of behaviour (IV) in order to study the effect on the rats behaviour (DV) so clear, causal relationship

real life application (STRENGTH of behaviourist approach)

1. e.g. token economy systems (type of therapy) are based on the principles of operant condition (by rewarding appropriate behaviours with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges etc.) used in prisons and hospitals

2. enhanced our understanding of gambling addictions due to Skinners work on schedules of reinforcement

case study evidence (STRENGTH of behaviourist approach)

Little Albert showed how phobias could be learnt through classical condition, pairing a loud noise with a white rat resulted in a conditioned fear response

GENERAL LIMITATIONS of behaviourist approach

1. states that there is no free will as behaviour is determined by the environment - seen in behaviours of persistent offenders where although they receive punishment they go on to reoffend

2. doesn’t take into account mental processes during learning as view humans as passive and machinelike respondents to the environment

3. artificial tasks and don’t use humans

assumptions of social learning theory (x4)

1. behaviour is learnt from the environment (nurture) and doesn’t regard genetics

2. we learn behaviours through observing and imitating successful role models

3. behaviour is more likely to be imitated if it is seen being rewarded (vicarious reinforcement)

4. considers mediational processes (cognitive factors involved). information learned from others behaviour needs to be understood, coded, stored and then retrieved at the appropriate moment

imitation

copying the behaviours of others/role models

identification

when an individual is influenced by another because they are somewhat similar or wish to be like them (factors include gender or high status)

modelling

if an individual imitates a role models behaviour later, it is called modelling

vicarious reinforcement

occurs when we see another person rewarded for certain actions or behaviours making it more likely we will imitate it

role of mediational processes

1. attention

2. retention - an individual must code and store the observed behaviour in memory

3. reproduction - capable of copying

4. motivation - good reason to reproduce (rewards help)

Bandura’s research

3 to 5 year old children were divided into one of three groups

1. model behaves aggressively (hitting Bobo doll with a mallet and uses verbal aggression)

2. model is not aggressive

3. no model

those in condition 1 - rated significantly higher for physical and verbal aggression

research support (STRENGTHS of social learning theory)

Bandura + Walters - one group watched aggressive behaviour, another saw it being rewarded and the third saw it punished (more aggressive in groups 1 and 2 than 3)

GENERAL STRENGTHS of social learning theory

1. made valuable contribution and helps us understand some behaviours e.g. aggression (can protect children from exposure to negative role models by putting certificates on films and video games etc.)

2. less deterministic as takes into account free will e.g. peers may have a negative influence upon us, but we choose to be friends with them

GENERAL LIMITATIONS of social learning theory

1. underestimates the influence of biological factors as boys often reported to behave more aggressively than girls (higher levels of testosterone = biological factors)

2. cannot explain all behaviour e.g. young children’s acquisition of language does not occur through imitation of role models since children initially produce much shorter utterances than adults then rapidly advance

assumptions of the cognitive approach (x5)

1. must refer to thought processes in order to explain behaviour e.g. depression → negative thoughts

2. stimulus and response is appropriate but only if the thought processes that occur are acknowledged

3. internal mental processes can be studied scientifically e.g. lab experiments and brain scanning techniques

4. mind works like a computer in that it has an input from our senses which it then processes and produces an output like language or specific behaviours

5. predominant concept is a schema

ways to make inferences on internal mental processes (x4)

1. lab experiments on healthy individuals in order to make inferences about what is going on inside peoples minds on the basis of their behaviour

2. carrying out experiments on brain-damaged patients to infer which areas of the brain control certain behaviours the patient cannot do

3. using evidence from brain scans to observe brain activity, observe a certain area of the brain being active when carrying out a visual task, making inferences that this area is involved in visual processing

4. developing computer and theoreticalte models based on experimental findings to model aspects of internal mental processes

theoretical models

simplified, usually pictoral or verbal representations of a particular mental processes - provide a useful way of conceptualising things that cannot be seem e.g. MSM attempts to explain how information is dealt with, lost and how it is stored

computer models

the human mind has an input, processes the information and provides an output (which is the behaviour executed)

schema

cognitive representations of frameworks that help organise and interpret information about the world around us and develop through personal experiences e.g. restaurant = waiters, menus, food etc.

benefit of schema

allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting the huge amounts of information we have to deal with on a daily basis e.g. reading or listening

limitation of schema

can exclude anything that does not conform to establish ideas about the world and instead focus on things that confirm a pre-existing belief and idea

emergence of neuroscience

• mapping of brain functions demonstrates more specific areas of brain involved in certain functions

• development of techniques like MRI scans led to the rapid expansion of information about the brain into what we know today (systematically observe and describe the neurobiological basis of mental processes)

• scanning techniques helped us to establish a neurobiological basis for some mental disorders like schizophrenia

Broca’s area

studied a patient named ‘Tan’ who could understand language but was unable to produce it. Examination of his brain revealed damage to Broca’s area allowing us to understand speech production and understanding language were separate stores

real life application (STRENGTH of cognitive approach)

successfully applied to psychological problems like depression e.g. Beck’s model where specific patterns of thinking are closely linked to emotional experiences which lead to faulty thinking meaning CBT therapies have been developed as effective treatment of depression

scientific methods (STRENGTH of cognitive approach)

lab experiments + brain scans used meaning inferences about how the mind works are based on far more than common sense e.g. duration of STM

correlational data (LIMITATION of cognitive approach)

only provide correlational data e.g. certain brain areas are associated with different types of memory but doesn’t prove they are involved in it (only a relationship)

computer/theoretical models (LIMITATION of cognitive approach)

oversimplified view of human cognition and therefore reductionist - states complex mental processes like how memory works and reduces them to simple explanations which don’t take into account the importance of emotions

assumptions of the biological approach (x4)

1. physical cause for our behavior which is affected by biological processes and structures

2. genetics = behaviour influenced by genes and that this has evolved over time in the same way as physical characteristics and so certain behaviours invented

3. biological structures = brain affects our behaviour (damage to certain areas affect our behaviour)

4. neurochemistry = biochemicals including hormones and neurotransmitters found in varying levels in the body and brain from individual to individual and thought to influence behaviour (e.g. high levels of dopamine is linked to compulsive behaviour)

influences of genes on behaviour

• affect personality, intelligence and susceptibility to psychological disorders

• behavioural characteristics like intelligence, mood and aggression are inherited from our parents and are found in the makeup of DNA

Twin studies

researchers compare the concordance between sets of monozygotic (MZ = 100% same genes) and dizygotic (DZ = 50% genes) twins.

• e.g. Gottesman and Shields compared the concordance for schizophrenia where for MZ = 42% and for DZ = 9% suggesting genetic basis

family studies

look for the occurrence of behaviours or disorders that run in families (the more genetic similarity, the more we expect similar behaviours/disorders to occur IF genetic cause)

adoption studies

if researchers find greater similarities between adopted children and their biological parents than with adoptive parents = genetic influence

concordance

a measure of similarity (usually expressed as a %) between two people

genotype

a persons actual genetic makeup and what is “written” in the DNA of the nucleus in an individual (made up of genes inherited from both parents which affects outward appearance)

phenotype

the physical appearance that results from this inherited information (combination of genes and environment → if the environment doesn’t provide the optimum conditions then the individual will not fulfil their potential)

evolution and behaviour

• refers to changes that take place over time as individuals become adapted to their environment

• proposed by Charles Darwin → natural selection (mechanism for evolution)

• some change in behaviour is caused by inheritance or natural selection

natural selection

individuals must compete with each other for access to resources (mates, foods etc.) and those who survive this competition go on to reproduce and pass on these behaviours (via genes) to their offspring

adaptive behaviours

behaviours and characteristics that increase the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce

John Bowlby (support of evolution + behaviour)

believed that attachment behaviour is adaptive as social releasers such as smiling and cooing are innate within all babies and as such, elicit a response from a caregiver and ensure the survival

Phineas Gage (support of biological structures + behaviour)

received a serious brain injury after an iron rod entered his skill and brain but despite this he showed little intellectual impairment (BUT became quick tempered and foul mouthed suggesting frontal lobe controls this)

HM (support of biological structures + behaviour)

suffered from epilepsy so had an operation to remove the area causing it but after the operation he suffered from anterograde amnesia (failure to learn new material) showing hippocampus plays a part in the registration of memories

neutortransmitters

neurochemicals that are released once a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron to transmit nerve impulses across the synapse to another neuron

impact of neurotransmitters on behaviour (x3)

1. dopamine - associated with our ‘drive or motivation’ but high level = schizophrenia and OCD

2. serotonin - responsible for sleep, memory, emotions and sexual behaviour and maintaining a stable mood but too little = OCD

3. hormones - e.g. adrenaline is involved in the flight-fight response and gas effects like raising HR and BR

real world application (STRENGTH of biological approach)

e.g. research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in schizophrenia which has shown high dopamine levels in certain levels of the brain are linked to the occurrence of schizophrenic symptoms leading to the development of drug treatments which correct this imbalance

scientific methods (STRENGTH of biological approach)

includes brain scanning techniques, twin studies and drug trials in order to accurately measure biological processes in ways not open to bias (based on objective data)

correlational evidence (LIMITATION of biological approach)

provides only correlational evidence and so it is hard to establish cause-and-effect as cannot directly show whether a certain brain area or neurotransmitter is responsible

reductionist (LIMITATION of biological approach)

too simple as it tries to explain complex human behaviour by reducing it down to simple explanations like explaining criminal behaviour as a result of decreased serotonin levels

deterministic (LIMITATION of biological approach)

explains human behaviour as being governed by internal biological causes over which we have no control, ignoring the idea that individuals have a choice over their behavior e.g. implications on legal system if gene blamed for criminal behaviour

assumptions of psychodynamic approach (x4)

1. early childhood experiences are believed to be pivotal in making us who we are

2. the driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind (must access if we have problematic behaviour)

3. the approach argues that instincts or drives motivate our behaviour (driven by instinct to go through a series of psychosexual stages)

4. assumes that we have three parts to our personality: id, ego and superego

unconscious

the drives or instincts that motivate our behaviour and personality are in the unconscious and these are inaccessible (traumatic or very unpleasant memories from childhood also believed to remain here, not accessible but driving our behaviour)

conscious

the part of the mind we are aware of - everyday thoughts and feelings

preconscious

thoughts and memories are not accessible at all times, but easily recalled

id

‘pleasure principle’ - the unconscious, insatiable set of instincts (sex + aggression) which people are born with that seeks pleasure and is completely selfish and demands instant gratification

ego

‘reality principle’ - develops between the ages of 18 months and 3 years = conscious, rational part of the personality which is in touch with reality and arbitrates between the demands of the id and superego

superego

‘morality principle’ - develops between ages of 3 and 6 through socialisation = the unconscious/preconscious that is moral and concerned with right and wrong (tries to internally punish and reward us)

repression

an unpleasant memory is pushed into the unconscious mind where it is not accessible to the conscious mind and therefore cannot cause anxiety

denial

refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation, reducing anxiety caused

displacement

when the focus of strong emotion is expressed onto a neutral person or object which reduces anxiety by allowing expression of that emotion

psychosexual stages

psychological development takes place in a series of fixed stages in childhood but if conflicts occur we may become fixated resulting in psychological or behavioral problems in adulthood

oral stage (birth → 18 months)

the mouth → the child enjoys tasting, swallowing and sucking

• successful completion = demonstrated by weaning

• fixation = can be needy, a nail-biter or smoker (if denied) or sarcastic (if indulged)

anal stage (18 months → 3 years)

defecation is main source of pleasure

• successful = potty training

• fixation = can be very tidy, control freak (if denied) or generous and disorganised (if indulged)

phallic stage (3 → 5 years)

focus of pleasures on the general area

• boys = Oedipus complex

• girls = Electra complex

Oedipus complex

boy wants his mother as his ‘primary love object’ and wants father out of way. Fears father knows this and will castrate him so identifies with father to stop castration anxiety

Electra complex

triggered with the realisaiton that the girl lacks a penis and develops ‘penis envy’. Develops attraction to father as believes he can give her baby which acts as a penis substitute so identifies with mother as doesn’t want to lose her love and resolves feelings

Latency stage (6 → puberty approx.)

sexual urges channeled into sports and other hobbies so focus is on developing same-sex friendships

Genital stage (puberty → adulthood)

focus on genitals and experience such pleasure with a partner. Aim is to develop healthy, adult relationships and should happen if earlier stages negotiated successfully

real life application (STRENGTH of psychodynamic approach)

used by some therapists e.g. dream analysis and free association which is talking until they reveal something in order to access the unconscious mind showing had some success with particular disorders like anxiety

research support (STRENGTH of psychodynamic approach)

case studies like Little Hans who had a phobia of horses - explained displaced phobia of his father supporting displacement and Oedipus complex

GENERAL STRENGTH of psychodynamic approach

highly influential as stood the test of time - his idea that mental illnesses may be caused by psychological factors rather than physical ones has been accepted and developed by researchers like Bowlby

case study evidence (LIMITATION of psychodynamic approach)

not generalisable as based on one individual and the father of Little Hans was friends with Freud and all communication was through letters so not as reliable

GENERAL LIMITATIONS of psychodynamic approach

1. unfalsifiable - cannot be proven or disproven as cannot observe the id or unconscious mind (Oedipus complex and other theories occur at an unconscious level making them almost impossible to test)

2. ignores current experiences in favor of childhood ones e.g. loss of job/breakdown of relationship may explain causes of depression but is ignored so not holistic

assumptions of the humanistic approach (x5)

1. behaviour is under our unconscious control i.e. we have free will

2. every individual is unique, humanists believe that we are all different and that we should be treated as such - person centered

3. people should be viewed holistically, humanists do not agree with focusing on one aspect of an individual but rather the whole life course

4. everyone has an innate drive to achieve their full potential (self-actualisation)

5. scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour - focus on the study of subjective experience, rather than trying to be objective

free will

the notion that humans can make choices, and their behaviour is not determined by biological or external factors → sees humans as ‘free agents’ who interact with their environment and choose how they behave

self-actualisation

the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

must fulfil five basic needs in order to achieve self-actualisation

1. physiological - those required for human survival, including food, water and sleep

2. safety - security, protection, stability, freedrfom from fear

3. belonging and love - need for friends, intimate relatonships, love of people

4. self-esteem - self-respect, perception of competence, status, recognition of others

5. self-actualisation - realising full potential

incongruence (Rogers belief)

when the self concept and ideal self esteem don’t match (congruence is opposite) = no self-actualisation

ideal self

the self you wish to be or should be

self-concept

the person you feel/percieve you are

conditions of worth

requirements an individual believes they must have to be loved by their parents and can either be perceived or real e.g. ‘I will only love you if you study medicine’

unconditional positive regard

total acceptance received from another person

influence on therapy of the humanistic approach

• increase the person’s feelings of self-worth and reduce the level of incongruence

• regard themselves as ‘guides’ or ‘facilitators’ to help people understand themselves and to find ways to reach self-actualisation

• they should have unconditional positive regard, genuineness (open + honest) and empathy (good understanding of the clients feelings and concerns)

• patients seen as the experts of their own condition

research support (STRENGTH of the humanistic approach)

using adolescents Harter found those who felt they had to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents appeal frequently ended up not liking themselves and those who created a false self and pretended to be the person their parents would like were more likely develop depression

positive application (STRENGTH of humanistic approach)

theory has been applied and developed into a therapy which has shown to be successful