Chapter 6 Consciousness - Full Chapter 2021 Update

Consciousness

Our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment.
We are conscious to the degree that we are aware of what is going on inside and outside ourselves.
This is not an on/off switch; we are not conscious or unconscious.
Psychologists refer to different levels (conscious, nonconscious, preconscious, subconscious, unconscious) and different states (higher, lower, altered)of this.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

Pineal Gland

Part of the endocrine system; produces melatonin

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Alpha Waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Beta Waves

Smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity and alertness

Theta Waves

Brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep

Delta Waves

Long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep

Sleep

A state of consciousness in which we are less aware of ourselves and our environment than we are when we are in our normal awake state.
A periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Researchers using EEG machines can record how active our brains are during this and describe the different stages of this we progress through each night.

Sleep Stages

How we cycle through sleep:
Sleep onset - The stage between wakefulness and sleep (Alpha to Theta). We might experience mild hallucinations (such as falling or rising) during this stage.
Theta (Light) Sleep - Stage in which the brain produces theta waves, which are relatively high-frequency, low-amplitude waves.
Delta (deep) - Stage where the body's chemical supplies are replenished. The slower the wave, the deeper the sleep and the less aware we are of our environment. People who are deprived of delta sleep will be more susceptible to illness and will feel physically tired.
Theta and Delta sleep are called Non-REM (or NREM) sleep.
We cycle through different stages of sleep during the night. Our brain waves slow down and our level of awareness lessens as we cycle down from sleep onset.
After a period of time in deep sleep, our brain waves start to speed up, and we go back through the lighter stages. As we reach the lightest stage, our brain produces a period of intense activity, our eyes dart back and forth, and many of our muscles may twitch repeatedly. This is REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.

REM Sleep

Sometimes called paradoxical since our brain waves appear as active and intense as they do when we are awake.
The purposes of this are unclear, but dreams usually occur here.
Deprivation of this interferes with memory.
The more stress we experience during the day, the longer our periods of this will be.
Babies spend more total time sleeping than we do (up to 18 hours), and they spend more time in this. As we age, our total need for sleep declines as does the amount of time we spend in this.

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages (theta and delta) except for REM sleep

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Hypnagogic Sensations

Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Dreams

A series of story-like images and emotions we experience as we sleep.
A difficult research area for psychologists because they rely almost entirely on self-report.
If people are awakened during or shortly after a REM episode, they often report they were doing this.
Validating theories about the purpose and meanings of these is difficult because researchers currently have limited access to these.

Information-Processing Dream Theory

The brain may be dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams.
Stress during the day will increase the number and intensity of dreams during the night.
Most people report that their dream content relates somehow to daily concerns.
The function of REM sleep may be to integrate the information processed during the day into our memories.
Babies may need more REM sleep than adults because they process so much new information every day.

Activation-Synthesis Dream Theory

Theory that proposes dreams are nothing more than the brain's interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep.
Dreams are seen as biological phenomena.
Brain imaging proves that our brain is very active during REM sleep.

Freudian Dream Interpretation

According to Freudian psychoanalysis, dream interpretation is a method to uncover the repressed information in the unconscious mind.
Freud said that dreams were wish fulfilling, meaning that we act out our unconscious desires in our dreams.
The ego protects dreamers from the material in the unconscious mind (protected sleep) by presenting these repressed desires in the form of symbols.

Manifest Content

The literal content of our dreams.
According to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its hidden content)

Latent Content

The unconscious meaning of the manifest content.
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its literal content)

Sleep Disorders

Identified and diagnosed by sleep researchers.
The most common of these are insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors, and somnambulism.

Insomnia

The most common sleep disorder.
People who suffer from this have persistent problems getting to sleep or staying asleep at night.
Usually treated with suggestions for changes in behavior: reduction of caffeine or other stimulants, exercise at appropriate times during the day (not right before bedtime), and maintaining a consistent sleep pattern.
People who suffer from this are advised to use sleeping pills only with caution, as they disturb sleep patterns during the night and can prevent truly restful sleep.

Narcolepsy

A rare sleep disorder, occurring in less than 0.001 percent of the population.
People who suffer from this suffer from periods of intense sleepiness and may fall asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times.
People who suffer from this may suddenly fall into REM sleep regardless of what they are doing at the time.
This can be successfully treated with medication and a change in sleep patterns.

Sleep Apnea

May be almost as common as insomnia.
Causes a person to stop breathing for short periods of time during the night.
The body causes the person to wake up slightly and gasp for air, and then sleep continues.
This process robs the person of deep sleep and causes tiredness and possible interference with attention and memory.
Overweight men are at a higher risk for this.
Can be treated with a respiration machine that provides air for the sleeper.

Night Terrors

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

Somnambulism

The condition of walking or performing some other activity without awakening; also known as sleepwalking

Hypnosis

A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
A possibly altered state of consciousness in which a person is highly suggestible.
Some people are more susceptible to this than others.
Hypnotic phenomenon include posthypnotic amnesia (forgetting events that occurred during this) and posthypnotic suggestion (a suggestion that a hypnotized person behave in a certain way after he or she is brought out of it).

Dissociation

A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.
Dissociation theory of hypnosis states that this is why people may behave in certain ways under hypnosis

Posthypnotic Suggestion

A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain (and the rest of the body) and induce an altered state of consciousness. Alter perceptions and moods.
Some of the behavioral and cognitive changes caused by these drugs are due to physiological processes, but some are due to expectations about the drug.
These types of drugs change our consciousness through similar physiological processes in the brain.
Drugs gradually alter the natural levels of neurotransmitters in the brain.
The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it is being artificially supplied by this.

Substance Use Disorder

A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Agonists

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters.
Fit in the receptor sites on a neuron that normally receive the neurotransmitter.
Function as that neurotransmitter normally would.

Antagonists

Drugs that block neurotransmitters.
Fit into receptor sites on a neuron.
Instead of acting like the neurotransmitter, they prevent natural neurotransmitters from using the receptor sites.

Tolerance

The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it is being artificially supplied by a psychoactive drug.
This physiological change produces this_, a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect.
Will eventually cause withdrawal symptoms in users.

Dependence

Psychologically dependent individuals feel an intense desire for the drug; they are convinced they need it in order to perform or feel a certain way. Physically dependent individuals have a tolerance for the drug, experience withdrawal symptoms without it, and need the drug to avoid the symptoms. Occurs as a consequence of drug use. Symptoms vary from drug to drug. On psychoactive drugs - can be psychological, physical or both.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. Physically dependent individuals have a tolerance for the drug, experience withdrawal symptoms without it, and need the drug to avoid the symptoms. Occurs as a consequence of drug use. Symptoms vary from drug to drug. On psychoactive drugs - can be psychological, physical or both.

Stimulants

Speed up body processes, including autonomic nervous system functions such as heart and respiration rate.
Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine are common stimulants.
These produce tolerance, withdrawal effects, and other side effects (e.g., disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, and heart problems).

Nicotine

A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco (found in cigarettes and e-cigs)

Cocaine

A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Amphetamines

Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
Ex. methamphetamine

Methamphetamine

A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Depressants

Slow down body processes, including our reactions and judgment, by slowing down brain processes (central nervous system processes).
Common ones include alcohol, barbiturates, and anxiolytics (also called tranquilizers or antianxiety drugs) like Valium.
Euphoria accompanies the depressing effects of these, and continued use leads to tolerance and withdrawal symptoms.

Alcohol Use Disorder

Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use (popularly known as alcoholism). .

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment; tranquilizers
Can be lethal when combined with alcohol

Opiates

Opium and its derivatives. Depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
Common ones include morphine, heroine, methadone, and codeine, all of which are similar in chemical structure to opium.
Act as agonists for endorphins and thus are powerful painkillers and mood elevators.
Cause drowsiness and a euphoria associated with elevated endorphin levels.

Hallucinogens (also called Psychedelics)

Cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasies.
Common ones include LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, and marijuana.
May remain in the body for weeks. If an individual ingests these again during this time period, the new dose of the chemical is added to the lingering amount, creating more profound and potentially dangerous effects. This effect is sometimes called reverse tolerance.
- Effects are less predictable than those of stimulants or depressants.

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol)

The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

A powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid

Near-death experience (NDE)

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Coma / Persistent-vegetative state (PVS)

Deep prolonged unconsciousness that can last for a prolonged or indefinite period of time, caused by disease, poison, or a severe injury. The person is alive but unable to move or respond to their environment. Not the same as being brain dead.