Final Exam

Conservatism

• Reluctant to change things

• Those with power and wealth are obligated to protect the weak

• hierarchies are important

• strong nationalists

Fascism

• reverse the developments of modern and political thought and return to an idealized mythical past

• militarist values

• devotion to powerful leaders

• survival of the fittest

• racists

• state always comes first

• violent dislike of communism

Classical Liberal

• restrict government involvement in political life

• individual freedom in all areas

• smaller governments

Reform Liberalism

• government spending could jumpstart a faltering economy

• taxes

• mainstream liberalism today

Socialism

• people should be equal and that wealth needs to be redistributed to make this possible - Robin Hood

• State must promote equality

• Progressive taxation

Communism

• Radical sub-genre of Socialism

• No one owns anything and government won’t be needed after a dictator is put in place to get the ball rolling

  • In theory not in practice

• oppressed lower class will eventually rise up and defeat the rich

Nationalism

• unites people

• strengthen common bonds

• on a spectrum

Imperialism

• extension of a country’s territorial and/or political economical power over other countries

• Colonial empires

• Product of industrialism and nationalism

• lead to rivalries between countries

• on a spectrum

  • colonies to taking it over

Militarism

• Belief that war is the means of achieving national aims

Internationalism

• Ultimate loyalty is not to a nation but the human race

Democracy

• Everyone has a say - elect members to represent

• Purpose of the state is to serve human welfare and liberty

• The individual controls the state

Totalitarianism

• State contorls the individual

• no natual rights

• repressed individual freedom

Civic Nationalism vs. Ethnic Nationalism

• Civic

  • nation should be made up of everyone who subscribes to the political creed

  • equality

  • laws are the root

• Ethnic

  • attachment to one’s nation through shared pre-existing ethnic characteristics (language, religion, customs)

The End of WWI and Aims for Peace

Battle of supplies

• Germany declared “unrestricted submarine warfare” to cut allies from supplies

• US is main supplier to allies but Germany is suffering more from the blockade

U.S. enters war - April 6, 1917

• so many us ships were sunk by U-boats

• made it a world war

• no army - huge population and industry

• army didn’t arrive in Europe until a year later

• Wilson’s fourteen points came about

Wilson’s Fourteen Points

• outlined how future conflicts should be resolved

• self-determination

• associated with the Treaty of Versailles

• renews morale

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• Russia has Bolshevik Revolution which leads to the rise of Lenin - “Peace, Bread, Land”

• Russia surrenders to the Germans

• Germany takes lots of their territory, population, railways, coal and farmland

Germany

• Split allies and push ahead to Paris

• Tactics are like blitzkrieg

• Austria- Hungary is breaking up bc of the fourteen points

• Germany’s allies surrender and they face internal strikes, revolts, and mutinies

Armistice

• German Kaiser abdicates so it can gets signed

• Germany out of Alsace-Lorraine

• Troops withdraw 10km passed Rhine River

• Surrender all ships

Hope for Peace

• 10mil dead, 20m wounded

• Empires break into ruins

• Trading patterns destroyed

• National minorities want freedom

Aims of the Big Three (end of WWI)

France (Clemenceau)

• Revenge and compensation for what they suffered

• Guarantee that’s something similar wouldn’t happen

• Strip Germany of wealth

• Stay away from border (secrutiy measures)

USA (Wilson)

• Self-determination in Europe

• Justice will favour no one

• Punish Germany for being wicked

England (Lloyd)

• Revenge on Germany for the deaths

• Rebuild a healthy Germany so trade can get started again

• Feared communism

• Decrease or destroy German navy

• Protect colonies and get more from Germany

Comments on the Paris Peace Conference

German Reaction

• Allowed little input

• Split in two pieces

• Lost 13% of its territory and portions of its iron, coal, and agricultural production

• Treaty not has harsh as the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Other treaties

• all lost territory and had to pay reparations and had war guilt clauses

• Austria: “Anschluss with Germany was forbidden

• Middle East

  • Territory taken from Turkey

  • Zionism but no Jewish state

  • Britain gets Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq

  • France gets Syria and Lebanon

  • Current Saudi Arabia remains independent

Self-determination in practice

• 10 new nations at expense of Germany, Austria, and Russia

• Had to treat all ethnicities equally (some ended up on the wrong side of the border)

• Big three rejected free trade in the east

• Conflicts among new nations

Russia

• Enemy of the big three- fighting against communism

• Cut off from Europe with buffer states

• West worried abt communism

America

• Wilson suffered a stoke → paralyzed government

• Doesn’t ratify treaty or join LoN →isolationism

• Signed separate treaty with Germany in 1921

Big Three in 1920s

Britain

• Inflation

• Political unrest

• Lots of strikes and feared communism

• Empire is weakening (colonies/commonwealth states refused to send troops during small conflicts)

• Left wing government lessened the communist threat

France

• Lots of coalition governments that don’t get much done

• Proportional representation system

• Population doesn’t grow when Germany’s does

• France doesn’t want to increase taxes to rebuild - fall behind

• Maginot line will be built

USA

• republican

• Isolationism

• Hands off economy

• Restrict immigration to mainly Northern Europe and only certain percentages of each group

• Prohibition- not enforced and mafia grew

• Economic boom

  • Consumerism

  • Advertising

  • Literacy rates improved

  • Overproduction

  • Tariffs

Diplomacy in the 1920s

• 1920 - LoN established

• 1922 - Washington Naval Treaty

  • Ration for ships 5:5:3:1.75 (Br:Us:J:F/I)

  • USA worried abt Japanese ships

  • BR and USA sit down and design ratio for the ships

• 1923 - Dawes Plan

  • Fr and Bel occupied Ruhr Valley (industrial hub) which caused hyper inflation in Germany (bc they got their worked to sabotage products)

  • Fr and Bel agree to leave

  • Germany has 59 years to pay reparations

    • Us loans them money

  • Reparations were shifted for the first time

• 1925 - Locarno Pact

  • Nations agree to respect borders

  • Eastern borders could be in flux

  • Not done through LoN - signal that people are doing their own thing

• 1928 - Kellogg-Briand Pact

  • 65 nations agree to renounce war as a tool of national policy

  • Not done in LoN

  • Japans is first to break when they invade Manchuria

• 1929 - Young Plan

  • Germany reparations reduced to 2bil (from 6.6bil) and to be paid by 1988

  • Stock market crash

The Great Depression: causes, consequences, and the new deal

Causes

• Overproduction

  • made too many goods and people weren’t buying them → kept making more and selling them for high prices→ no one was buying →workers were laid off → less demand

• Protectionism

  • USA put tariffs on other countries so they put on retaliatory tariffs and world trade ground to a halt

  • Couldn’t sell surplus goods in other countries

• Credit

  • People looks out so many loans and borrowed so much money to put into the stock market

Consequences

• Bank Failures

  • stock market crashes and bank wanted their loans back but no one could pay so the banks went out of business and some people lost their entire life savings

• Unemployment

  • 25% unemployment

  • No benefits in place to help people

The New Deal

• Roosevelt “Relief, Recovery, Reform”

• Created jobs and added welfare services

• Used the Ideas of Keynes (governments spend their way out of a depression)

The Weimar Republic

1918

• Ebert (social democrat) is President

  • Challenged from all the wings

  • Lots of street fighting and political murders - growing pains of being new to democracy

1919

• January - Spartacist (communism) revolt

  • Freikorps brought in my social democrats to stop the revolt

  • revolt leaders executed for treason

  • Only 2 months after the war ended

1920

• March - Kapp Putsch

  • right wing military takes over Berlin government for 100 hours

  • coup crumbles when workers went on strike

• 50 000 communists in Ruhr Valley - Freikorps stop them but 2 000 workers are shot

1921

• Reparations on Germany finally set

1922

• G can’t make 2nd payment, foreign minister assassinated

• Treaty of Rapallo

  • Russia and Germany not included in a discussion

    • Germany can do military things in Russia and they will get economic benefits

1923

• Ruhr Valley and hyper inflation

• Munich Putsch

  • nazi march

  • coup is a failure

  • hitler serves 9 months in prison and writes his book

  • will now work in system instead of using violence

1925

• Hindenburg becomes President (OLD and easily manipulated)

1926

• Germany joins the LoN

How were fascists able to rise to power in Italy?

• Italy didn’t get land they were promised from WWI

• Cost of living was up by 500%

• Many didn’t trust the new parliamentary democracy

• Lots of coalition governments didn’t work

• Lots of worker strikes

  • In 1919 Mussolini made Combat Groups to stop the strikes

• Gov. brought in Mussolini bc they thought they could control him if he was in the system - only made him legit

• many politically motivated murders

• How did Mussolini take control of the government and become dictator?

• 1922 - threatens to march on Rome and demand a strong government

  • Kind refuses to sign state of emergency and instead asks Mussolini to form government

    • blackshirts still march to make it look like a violent take over

• His party doesn’t get a majority in parliament

• 1923 - Acerbo Law

  • Whoever has the popular vote automatically gets 2/3 of the seats

  • Fascists get majority in the next election (shocking)

• 1924 - Matteotti murder

  • Socialist leader murdered

  • No one takes responsibility but then they make Mussolini take credit

• Mussolini declares himself dictator, introduces censorship and personally checks the newspapers

  • Secret police, one party rule

• 1929 - Lateran Treaty with Catholic Church

  • Italy gets Rome - Vatican city created

  • Catholic gets state religion if they stay out of the party’s way - looks like he has their support

Mussolini’s economy and foreign policy

• Wanted autarky - no imports

• Wanted to increase the population

• 1932 - unemployment is 10x higher

• Spends money on invasions but tourism to italy is up bc he dug up the Colosseum

• 1923/24 - italy takes more territory from greece

• 1934 - Dollfuss Affair

  • Germany makes an attempt to annex Austria - Italy moved to protect their borders and germany stepped back

  • Chancellor of Austria murdered - perhaps orchestrated by the nazis

• 1935 - Stressa Front

  • Britain, France, Italy band together to stop Germany from rearming

• 1938

  • Rome-berlin axis is solidified to help Franco in spain - testing ground for german airforce

• 1939

  • Italy seizes Albania

  • May - pact of steel between G and I

• 1940

  • summer - I enters WWII, I fights to the South while G takes north

  • Sept - Triparitite Pact

    • I, G, J

Road to WWII Events/ Appeasement

• 1931 - Japan invades Manchuria

• March 1935 - Hitler announces Rearmament - first ToV breaking

• April 1935 - Stresa Front created in response to rearmament (Br, F, I)

• 1935 - I invades Abyssinia, Rome-Berlin axis solidified as a result

• 1936-39 - Spanish Civil War, right wing nationalist under Franco supported by I and G, left-wing republicans (gov.) supported by USSR

• 1936 - Rhineland remilitarised, NO ONE IS THERE TO STOP THEM - second ToV breaking

• March 1938 - Anschluss - third ToV Breaking

• Fall 1938 - G annexes the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia

  • KEY EX OF APPEASEMENT

  • Three meetings held, final one in Munich

  • Br and F let G have the land in exchange for a promise that hitler won’t take any more

  • Soviets offered to help but were turned away

• March 1939 - G occupies the rest of Czechslovakia

• APPEASEMENT POLICY IS NOW OVER
  

• August 1939 - Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact

  • Publicly, they won’t fight each other for ten years

  • privately, they are going to divide Poland between them

  • Hitler has eliminated a two front war

• September 1939 - G invades Poland and the allies declare war - Hitler didn’t actually think they would - Polish ogv. evacuates to London

War Begins (WWII)

• Blitzkrieg was super successful, Hitler only wants to fight one area at a time and quickly defeat them

• Soviet Union goes into the Baltic states

• Phony war - no real fighting in western Europe until 1940

• Russo-Finnish War (Winter 39/40) - F puts up a fight but loses

  • Factories in the east, planes don’t have enough fuel to bomb them

• April 1940 - G goes into D and N, makes it easier to bomb Br

• May 1940 - G goes into Netherland, Churchill becomes PM of Br

• May 1940 - G goes into Belgium and then F and surprises allies bc they came through the ardennes forest - rough terrain for tanks

• G turns towards the english channel and splits allied forces (Dunkirk evacuation)

• Elsewhere

  • 1939 - I takes Albania

  • Oct. 1940 - I attacks Greece (not v successful)

  • Nov. 1940 - Hungary, Slovakia, Romania join the Tripartite Pact (Axis Alliance)

  • 1941 - G takes Yugoslavia and Greece

  • 1941 - I attacks Northern Africa, draws G troops to this area so they have to fight on multiple fronts

Operation Dynamo/Dunkirk & the aftermath

• May 26, 40- June 4

• Churchill hopes to save around 30 000 men

• 340 000 allied soldiers rescued with the help of civilian boats (shallow water)

• June 10 - Italy attacks France

• June 22 - France surrenders and it split into two parts

  • Nazi-occupied (the coast and north)

  • Vichy Regime (“independent” but collaborates with G)

• Hitler turns his attention of Britain

Battle of Britain

• Summer/fall 40

• Once France is defeated, Hitler turns to Br

• Br refuses to negotiate with G, so they plan for invasion: Operation Sea Lion

  • Air strikes on English Channel shipping and ports

  • Bomb radar station and forward fighter bases

  • Attack Inland fighter vases and aircraft factories

    • Might have won but G changes target to London in retaliation for Br bombings of Berlin

    • The Blitz - 58 nights of British bombing

  • Bomb London

  • Sept. 15 - Final MASSIVE air assault but G loses 60 planes

• Why Br won

  • G had more experienced pilots and more planes

  • Br pilots who bailed could fly again

  • Br planes had more fuel

  • Had a few minutes to warning thx to radars

  • G trageted civilians

  • Br Morale

Early Japanese Expansion

• J already has Korea and Taiwan as colonies

• Invades Manchuria in 1931

• Took over the rest of China in 1937

• J’s most needed resources: Oil and Rubber

• 1940 - F falls to G so J takes its Asian colonies ( French Indo-China → Vietnam, Cambodia Laos)

Japanese conflict with USA

• July 1941 - upset bc it can no longer trade with China and fearing J’s possible further expansion, the Us blocks the sale of oil to J → angers J as they need oil to expand

• Nov. 1941 - General Tojo (militaristic) becomes PM and convinces Emperor Hirohito that J can win a war against the US

Attack on Pearl Harbour

• Sunday, December 7, 1941 (CHURCH)

• “A date which will live in imfamy” - Roosevelt

• Japan under Admiral Yamamoto

  • Launched 300+ planes in two waves from ships 440km north of Pearl Harbour

  • Planes were picked up on Us radar but were mistaken for US planes

  • 7:55 first wave

  • 8:40 second wave

  • 10:00 battle over

• Damages

  • US - 8 battleships, 10 warships, 188 planes (+159 damaged), 2403 Americans killed and 1178 injured, Us navy was helpless for 6 months (couldn’t stop J expansion)

  • J - 29 planes

• *the three american aircraft carriers that were the targets were all out on exercises - The war in the pacific was determined by how many aircraft carriers a country had

The USA enters the Pacific War

• Dec. 8 - US and Br declare war on J

• Dec. 11 - G and I declare war on US (Tripartite Pact with J)

  → Now officially a WW and the Great War will be known as WWI

Japan Continues to Expand (41-42)

• Dec. 7 - Pearl Harbour attack

• Dec. 8 - attack Philippines (US territory), Hong Kong (Br), and send troops to Thailand to prepare for attack on Malaya, Singapore and Burma (all Br)

• Dec. 25 - take Hong Kong

• Jan 31. Take Malaya

• Feb. 15 - take Singapore (KEY Br naval base)

• March - take Dutch East Indies (Indonesia today) - OIL

• May 6 - Philippines actually captured

• May - take Burma

• J called all their conquered lands “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”

• Battle of Midway - June 1942

  • J attacked the island hoping to destroy US aircraft carriers and set up a base further east

  • Despite being outnumbered, US wins

  • After, US will push J back towards their home island

US Strategy in the Pacific

• 2 pronged attack

  • Pacific Ocean - Admiral Nimitz would go through the center

  • South West Pacific - General MacArthur would work his way up from Australia

  • Two would meet in the Philippines

  • Naval form of Blitzkrieg used (island-hopping)

    • skip heavily defended islands while taking weaker ones

    • Those left behind would crumble bc supply lines would be cut

Path of Allied Advances in the Pacific (42-45)

• Papua New Guinea

• Solomon Island (early 43)

• Gilbert Island (late 43)

• Marshall Islands (Feb 44)

• Mariana Islands (June 44) - DDay in Europe

  • From here Us can launch bombing raids on J

• Battle of Leyte Gulf (Oct 44)

  • Largest Naval battle in history

  • destroys J navy - the first use of Kamikaze pilots

  • J now cut off from oil in the Dutch East Indies

• War over in Europe in May 1945

• Okinawa (June 45)

  • J launched 355 kamikaze raids

• Iwo Jima (Summer 45)

• Br takes back Burma

  • Allies thought they would get help from Chiang Kai-Shek’s Nationalists in China but he simply waited for the allies and communists to do the work for him so he could save his troops for the coming battle against the communists

The Atomic Bombs (Japan and why they don’t just regular bomb)

• The US was heavily bombing J throughout 1945 to prepare for Allied land invasion

• Leaflets were dropped to convince J citizens to surrender

• Once the US had the A-bomb, Truman decides to leave the land invasion as too many US live would be lost

• He will use the Bomb to force J’s surrender

Potsdam Declaration

• Two new leaders (Truman and Attlee)

• Big three meet for their third conference in Potsdam in July 1945

• July 26, 1945: Potsdam declaration to J: called for J’s unconditional surrender or action would be taken - “prompt and utter destruction”

Hiroshima- August 6,1945

• Enola Gay drops the first a-bomb, little boy

• Detonates 580m above ground

• 80 000 killed instantly, 80 000 more in the coming weeks

• SU declares war on J

Nagasaki - August 9, 1945

• Chosen bc it was an industrial seaport

• “Fat man” dropped

Japan surrenders

• Aug. 14 - J surrenders unconditionally

• Sept. 2 - the official surrender is signed aboard the US ship, the Missouri, under General MacArthur

• J will be occupied by G but in this case ONLY BY THE US

Why use an atomic bomb?

• To spare US lives in a costly land invasion

  • Estimated casualties were 1.7-4mil

  • End the war quickly before SU got too much land invasion the east and shared occupation of J

  • Show of force to USSR (they don’t have a bomb

Operation Barbarossa

• Goals: to colonize and exploit Russia for goods (fueled by racism)

• Timeline: the operation was planned to launch in April but got pushed to late June 1941, extending Barbarossa to December

• Northern army group (4th Panzer Army) moved from East Prussia, through Baltic States, towards Leningrad

• Center army group (2nd and 3rd Panzer Army) moved from Poland, through Minsk-Smolensk, towards Moscow

• Trapped and annihilated the Red Army, destroyed planes and tanks as they went, and killed/captured Russians

• Southern army group (1st Panzer Army) moves from Czechoslovakia, through Kiev/Modern Day Ukraine, towards Stalingrad

  • Breadbasket and Black Sea port

• USSR army was bigger but not coordinated

Battle for Moscow

German Plan

• October 19, 1941 - Moscow declared a state of siege

What happened

• Germans couldn't advance quickly through the rough and dense terrain

• Russian Counterattacks lessened German supplies

Effects

• German equipment was not built for the extreme cold, so it froze → loss of oil

• Up to 10 000 German casualties from frostbite

• Roads to Moscow heavily congested

Siege of Leningrad

Siege Basics

• A military encircling the enemy, cutting off supply lines and forcing a surrender

• The siege of Leningrad was a part of Operation Barbosa (German invasion of Soviet
  Union)

• Leningrad was targeted due to being a large producer of tanks and ammo as well as a naval base

Series of events

• Sept. 1941 - Germany approach Leningrad from West, South, and Finland from the North

• Nov. 1941 - Leningrad Surrounded, and trail lines and resources cut off

• 1942- 650,000 lives are lost due to starvation, disease and German shelling

• Some resources can come from barge in summer and ice sled in winter via Lake Ladoga

• 1943 - Starvation was helped with vegetable gardens covering the city

• Jan. 1943 - Operation Spark ruptured German lines, offering starving Russians food and supplies

• Jan. 1944- In a series of battles the Russians and Baltic forces push
  German forces to the outskirts of the city

Battle of the Atlantic

• Battle of the Atlantic (U.S. Supplies Great Britian under the lend-lease act)

• U-BOaTS (Submarines) give the Germans an initial advantage

• Naval and Air Support were provided for Convoys

• Enigma broken in March 1943, Allies have intelligence on U-Boat presence

• Allies sunk 41 U-Boats in one month

• Germany withdraws from the Atlantic temporarily

• Battle ends with the War

The Battle of El Alamein

• The British Eighth Army defeated the Axis forces in the second battle of El Alamein

• The British retreated to Alamein after defeat at the Battle of Mersa Matruh in June of 1942 - strategic

• The first battle of El Alamein saw a stalemate preventing Axis forces from advancing further

• The allies were unable to break through the defenses of the Afrika Korps

• The second battle was a decisive allied victory that led to a major turning point in the North African campaign.

• The Allied forces used heavy artillery bombardment and a multi-pronged attack to break through defenses.

• The battle ended with the Axis forces being pushed back

• First Big Ally win against G/axis

Operation Torch

• Three major amphibious landings: Casablanca (west), Oran (center), and Algiers (east) to rapidly gain control of North African coastlines and ports.

• Speed & Surprise Tactics: swift landings supported by naval bombardments and limited resistance, aiming to secure airfields and cities before Vichy French forces could organize.

• Strategic Goal: aimed to control Morocco and Algeria, the Allies aimed to push east into Tunisia and trap Axis forces between Torch troops and the British advancing from Egypt.

• How the Allies won : The Allies launched surprise attacks leaving the opposition's military unprepared, superior navy and Air Force. They were also able to send out many more men. As estimated 100,000 solders took part

• How Vichy France lost : They were officially neutral but in collaboration with the Nazis. This caused confusion on decision making regarding how severely to resist attacks. Vichy France was isolated from a lot of the world this prohibited them from receiving aid from Italy and Germany.

• Significance for the war: The opening of the new front allowed the Allies to pushback and gain the offensive against the Axis powersFirst time U.SA. in this theatre

Battle of Stalingrad

• winter 42/43

• 800,000 Axis casualties, ~1.1 million Soviet casualties

• Winter/harsh conditions (-40°C!) extended supply lines and bad logistics led to Germans being poorly equipped.

• Harsh close quarters fighting, house to house, street to street.

• Hitler wanted to take Stalingrad which was named after Stalin and losing it would be a huge blow to moral. It was also a major industrial center and an important transport hub. Also, oil!

• Soviet counterattack "Operation Uranus". A pincer movement encircling the German 6th Army.

• Hitler refused at allow Paulus to break out and regroup with the rest of the army. The 6*" army ultimately surrendered, the Soviets taking 90,000

• German prisoners, few of whom ever returned home.

• Marked the end of the German advance into the USSR

Operation Husky

BEFORE

• Operation Husky began after Casablanca conference, in which Western allies hoped to relieve pressure on Soviets - January 12th-23rd, 1943

• Doolittle Air Force performs air raids to Italian infrastructure and aircrafts - June
  12*, 1943

DURING (July 9/10th- August 17th 1943)

• Major cities Syracuse (July 12th) and Palermo (July 22 d) captured, by allies and Seventh army to cut off Italian forces

• The British Eighth invaded from the Southeast, while the US Seventh invaded
  Southwest (140,000 men)

• Opposed by Italian Sixth Army and German 15* (275,000 men)

GOALS

• Allies had hoped to drive Italy out of the war, force Germans to disperse their troops, and relieve pressure on the Soviets

OUTCOME

• Italy surrenders September 8th, 1943

Before, During, and after Operation Overlord

Churchill wanted I invasion before Fr

• Br made it seem that the invasion would come from Pas de Calais not Caen-Cotentin (radio messages, set-up troops, shortest distance of channel)

• Allies can tide-predicting machines to find the ideal attack time

• Parachuters behind enemy line to cause confusion

• Mulberry Harbours (road from giant ships to beach)

• June 6

  • All meet @ Piccadilly Circus and dispersed to five breaches

    • Utah/Omaha - US

    • Gold/Sword - Br

    • Juno - Cad

• Aug 25 - Paris was liberated

• Sept. - Allies freed Belgium and moved to Netherlands

• By Jan., after small attempt Hitler has lost and allies move into Germany

  • Battle of the Bulge

    • Germans attacks through Ardennes - quickly defeated

Battle for Berlin

• On April 1, Stalin called back his top military commanders to issue their orders for the attack on Berlin. It would be a two pronged attack with 2.5 mil soldiers and 6 000 tanks.

• The Germans countered with 1 million troops who were a mix of combat veterans, SS fanatics, new young recruits, and elderly members of the Volkssturm (People's Army)

• By March 1945 Hitler spent most of his time in a Bunkerin Berlin and made very few public appearances.

• On April 13, 1945 Franklin Roosevelt (us pres.) dies.

• On April 25 the two prongs of the Soviet army met in Berlin

• On April 30, the Soviets attacked the Reichstag and hoisted the Soviet Flag here.

• On April 30, Hitter committed suicide.

• On May 1, the German people were told that the Fuehrer had fallen in battle and that they should continue to fight the Bolshevik menace.

• Goebbels and Bohrmann tried to negotiate a ceasefire with Russians over Berlin but Soviet

• General Zhukov demanded the inconditional surrender of German troopS everywhere

On May 2, Berlin surrendered.

End of the war in Europe

• German General Doenitz tried to arrange surrenders with the British and Americans but was given the same response.

• On May 7 at 2:41 the Germans signed an unconditional surrender in France

• On May 8 a second surrender was signed in Berlin at Stalin’s insistence and this becomes known as VE Day.

• There were still issues facing the Allies:

  • The Japanese were still fighting in the East

  • Europe lay in ruins

  • The prisoners still alive in the concentration camps needed immediate assistance

• All the German soldiers had to be screened before they could return home. The Allies particularly wanted find members of the SS

• The Nazi leaders were rounded up and put on trial at Nuremberg from crimes against humanity— Their sentences ranged from 10 years to death.

Allies won & effects (WWII)

• Axis

  • 7y ran out of supples

  • Allies learned from early failures (ex Dieppe) & adjusted materials + strategies

  • stretched out & couldn’t hold territory

  • I incompetence interfered w/ German planning

  • 4 Both sides made tactical errors but Axis couldn’t afford to do so

• Effects

  • Most destructive war in history

  • 30+ mil Killed + Holocoust victms

  • 21+ mil uprosted fran nomes

  • Holocaust

• " no big treaty- the victors imposed their will

  • new tech

  • ushered in nuclear age (only Us)

  • welfare state increased - gov. programs for people

• Euro, empires largely gone & independence movement in colonies increases

  • Two new super powers replace the old multi-polar system in warld politics
    → COLD WAR (USSR RUS)

  • United Nations

What does each ally want (WWII conferences)

• The Soviets wanted a buffer zone capitalist West to protect them from possible attack from the

• The British wanted to ensure communism didn't spread and that their imperial interests were protected, particularly in the west Mediterahion.

• The Americans wanted a safe, cooperative world that would increase World trade
  An amiable relationship between the Allies was the best way to achieve this goal.

Casablanca Conference - Jan 1943

• Roosevelt and Churchill (Stalin refused to leave Russia)

• Agreed to go ahead with plan to invade Italy and later on Normandy

• "Casablanca Declaration" —Western Allies would accept only unconditional surrender from Germany. This was a message to Stalin that he would not have to fight Hitler alone

Tehran Conference - November 1943

• Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill - Big Three

• Britain really pushed for the offensive through_ Italy but U.S. ensured promise made to Stalin that a second front in france would be opened by early summer of 1944.

• Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan once Germany defeated.

• Discussion but no decision on post-war Germany. Britain wanted a strong united Germany to offset the communist threat and Stalin wanted it completely dismembered. The U.S. was unclear on this point.

• Poland → Soviets would get some of Poland and Poland would be given some of eastern
  Germany to make up for their losses in the east. Polish government ("London Poles") not consulted.

• The Polish question would be the most difficult to solve in Allied negotiations:

• Britain wanted an independent Poland (the British considered the "London Poles" who had fled in 1939 the true government) as a buffer to communism on the continent.

• Stalin wants territorial compensation and a buffer to the Capitalist West. The Soviets continue to push for the Oder-Neisse line as the boundary. (map, Howarth p. 191)

• In the end the Americans will acquiesce to Stalin's demands.

Bretton Woods Conference (1944)

• International Monetary Fund (IMF) set up to lend money to countries whose economies were in poor shape and whose currencies might suddenly have to be devalued

• World Bank set up to lend money for re-building war-torn Europe economic development of the world's poorer nations

Yalta Conference - February 1945

• Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill

• Stalin demands $ 20 billion in reparations-half of which would go to the USSR

• Germany was to be demilitarized and denazified and divided into occupied zones (British, Soviet, American, French) - occupied Germany, never supposed to be forever

• Berlin was to be divided the same way

• Austria and Vienna were also divided this way

• Free elections were to be held in Eastern Europe

• Stalin agrees to declare war on Japan within 3 months of Germany's surrender

• Poland - the Oder-Neisse line continued to be discussed.

• United Nations Organization

  • To begin with, only those who had fought the Axis would be allowed to join which led to lots of countries suddenly declaring war on the Axis powers

  • General Assembly with one vote per member nation and a Security Council 5 permanent members (USA, USSR, Britain, China, France) who each had a veto

• All members have to agree on military action

Potsdam Conference - July 1945

• Stalin, Truman, and Churchill/Attlee (Churchill will be voted out during this conference and replaced by Clement Attlee)

• Truman didn’t know

  • Americans tested atomic bomb in desert on day this conference started henad it while flying

  • USA and Br gave in to Stalin's demands in Poland as they were powerless to stop it without going to war against the Russians so the Oder-Neisse line was new border

  • SU= strongest land army

• Nuremberg Trials set up

  • Reparations: each country would take what it wanted from its own zone and the USSR would be allowed to remove 25% of industrial equipment in the British and American zones.

  • The four zones would be administered by a Control Council of 4 military commanders and eventually elections were to be held beginning with local governments

Aftermath of WWII

• It is estimated that 16 million Germans were expelled from the eastern countries. They made their way into overcrowded cities in Germany where industry was being crippled and the Germans were unable to feed themselves.

• The American and British zones were joined together in 1947 and the plan was to rebuild Germany's economy. Stalin had no such plan and the border between the two Germanys hardened.

• Berlin‘s future was very precarious.

• "...an Iron Curtain has descended across the Continent." --Churchill, March 1946

• → By 1948, all of the countries in the Soviet sphere had voted in communist governments with the USSR pulling the strings behind the scenes.

  • → The only exception was Yugoslavia which although communist, remained independent of the Soviet Union

Holocaust

Roots of Anti-Semitism

• Before Christian era: Judaism's rejection of idol worship alienated other groups.
  Romans: Jewish refusal to participate in emperor worship
  Christian era: Christians persecuted the Jews for being the crucifiers of Christ

• Persecution took many forms:
  Jews not given the same rights as others
  Forced to wear identifying badges

• forced to live in segregated areas (ghettos)

• couldn't own land, sometime expelled en masse from entire areas after Russian Revolution, the Jewish blood of several Bolshevik leaders meant many associated communism with the Jews- Hitler chief proponent of this

Germany 1933-39

• 1933 - Jews removed from government positions

• 1935 - Nuremberg Laws - "racial purity"

• 1938 - Kristallnacht - Jewish businesses and property destroyed and many Jews arrested and put into concentration camps

• Use of propaganda to urge citizens to shun Jews

The Final Solution

• January 1939 Hitler announces that in a new Europe, the Jews would be destroyed but gives no further detail

• Idea to relocate all Jews to Madagascar discarded

• Until 1941, no mass killing of Jews; Jews were confined to ghettos such as those in Warsaw, Lodz, and Lublin (all Poland) —many die here of starvation and illness

The Invasion of Russia

• With Operation Barbarossa, Hitler gives instructions to Himmler and Heydrich (SS) to begin planning for the final solution with the creation of "Einsatzgruppen" —special troop units to be used solely for the extermination of the Jews

• The killings began with invasion, in 4 months 600,000 Jews were killed but Hitler felt this wasn't fast enough

Wansee Conference (January 20, 1942)

• Nazis estimated that there were 11,000,000 Jews

• They would first be put to work and then killed

• Extermination camps now built in the east and with each the Nazis changed their technique

Auschwitz

• The biggest camp used Cyclon B gas in air-tight chambers and could kill 2,000 victims within the space of 15 minutes

• Between 1 and 2 million were killed here

• Once killed, the bodies were checked for gold and jewelry, burned, and the ashes scattered

• The Final Solution was so important to Hitler that he gave trains moving Jews eastward precedence over supply trains needed on the fronts

• It is estimated that about 6 million Jews and a further 6 million non-Jewish civilians were killed by the Nazis

Resistance

• Rebellions did break out in the camps and ghettoes, the most notable being the Warsaw uprising in 1943

• However, for most Jews rebellion was not considered-already so weak and downtrodden by the Nazis

The Issue of Guilt

• Individual-Hitler and those who ordered the extermination
  Vs.

• Collective Guilt - The German people should have stopped the slaughter as there was no

• way the Germans couldn't have known what was going on

• Allies - had some knowledge of what was going on but didn't do much to stop it other than a joint declared statement in their government houses condemning the actions of the Nazis

Nuremberg Trials

• After the war, trials were held in Nuremberg to try Nazis for war crimes.

• Many claimed they were just "following orders" but this defense was not allowed and so from WWIl onward, soldiers could be held responsible for immoral acts.

Background in Eastern Europe

• 1947 - Bulgaria, Rumania, Poland, Hungary, and Albania all had communists governments

• Czechoslovakia which was democratic before WWII held out until 1948 before elections gave communists the majority

• SU organized the economics of the Soviet Bloc to work in its favour

  • each country specialized in a few industries to make them dependant on SU and each other

Background in the West

• In Western Europe countries were occupied with their individual problems

• War left communists in a strong position and has a reaction to their strength, right wing parties emerged in France and Italy

• Br - no strong communist party but empire was quickly falling apart and they were financially devastated- clearly not a world superpower

• The us, now occupying Germany, Austria, and Japan, couldn’t retreat into isolationism

  • took on role as the defender of the “Free World”

“Two Halves of the Same Walnut” - The Truman Doctrine

• The us worried about the spread of communism

• When the Br inform us in 1947 that they can’t afford to help the Greek Royalists against the communists, Truman announces that they will help any country threatened by communism

• The us passes the U.S. National Security Act of 1947 (to better defend country)

  • Department of Defence, Nation Security Council, and Central Intelligence Agency (KBG is SU counterpart)

Two Halves of the Same Walnut” - Marshall Plan

• In June 1947, General George Marshall, the new American secretary who feared major economic collapse in Europe, outlined his plan

• Billions were made available to countries prepared to cooperate with each other to bring about economic recovery

• In return, those countries were expected to buy American goods and provide investment opportunities for American capital

• Everyone was welcome as long as they agreed to share info about resources and became members of a permanent organization to oversee the working on the plan

• Truman asked congress but they refused until Czechoslovakia fell to Communism

• April 1948, the OEC (Organization for European Economic Cooperation) set up

• 13 billion between 1948-1952 to Europe → it worked, no more communism inroads into Europe

  • Stalin retaliates with Comecon = Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

Early Germany

• By 1947, partition between Germany looked more permanent

• June 18, 1948 - new currency (Deutschmark) introduced into the western zones

• Soviets respond by introducing new currency in their zone - including all of Berlin

• June 23, 1948 - Deutschmark introduced into West Berlin Zones

• Soviet retaliate - June 24, 1948 - they close off all roads, rail lines, and waterways that linked West Berlin to the western zones

Berlin Airlift (48/49)

• West had to decide whether to give up Berlin but they didn’t want another country to fall to communism and into the Soviet sphere of influence so they fought back creating a massive airlift operation to fly in everything West Berliners needed

• A flight left for West Berlin from bases in West Germany zones every 30s

• May 12,1949 - the soviets lifted the blockade as it wasn’t working and it was clear the West wasn’t going to give up

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

• During the Berlin Blockade, many nations began making plans in case they were attacked: result was NATO in which 11 founding nations agreed to defend each other in case of attack (April 4,1949)

• West Germany would join in 1955

SU with their first A-bomb

• They detonate it

• Truman is now able to get more money to build up armies of Western European nations - see us become power house that’s hard to undo

Federal Republic of Germany (West)

• Established in August 1949

• Konrad Adenauer was First Chancellor

• System still used on modern Germany

German Democratic Republic (East)

• Established October 1949

• Walter Ulbricht became Gerneral Secretary in July 1950

Warsaw Pact

• Created in 1955 by SU

• Was a military alliance of communist states in response to the West’s NATO

Khrushchev Thaw

• Easing harsh political and social climates - could better enjoy benefits of communism

• Production of more consumer goods

• Better standard of life

• Built new housing in cities to encourage people to move

• Censorship relaxes and pop culture thrives

• Intellectuals write again

• Political prisoners are freed

• HOWEVER he basically started collective farming again and famine

• Communism struggled to care for people - infrastructure crumbles

Peaceful coexistence

• Everyone can exist peacefully without needing a war to settle disputes

• Avoided WWIII

• slowed down the arms race

• Cultural exchange for countries to try to understand each other

• Came to an end when Francis Gary Powers’s U2 spy plan was shot down and he was taken prisoner (Russian spy was also found in America

Destalinization

• Related to the Khrushchev thaw

• Eastern European nations heard about it and hoped they would be allowed to redefine communism for themselves

Poland revolt

• Weren’t satisfied with their low wages and long work days

• Became more vocal during the thaw

• Resolved peacefully and their leader (Gomulka) learned that he had to listen to Khrushchev to maintain power

Hungary revolt

• Hungarians toppled a statue of Stalin and removed the communist coat of arms from their flag

• Withdrew from Warsaw Pact and announced they were neutral in the Cold War

• SU felt threatened bc it was a revolution against communism

• Losing an ally, especially a buffer between the west

• TANKS sent in

Berlin Wall

• Erected to prevent brain drain (intellectuals leaving)

• 15 000 people every day were leaving

• Barbed wire before brick

• Went through buildings and streets

• Fully built in the 70s

• Shoot and kill order for any East Germans that go near the wall

• Individual check points for each sector

• West all around West Berlin

• Wall, barbed wire, tank stoppers, watch tower, no man’s land, other wall → hard to escape

• Under ground tunnels built

Korean War

• North attacked the south and backs them into a small corner

• MacArthur retaliates up to the river between NK and China

  • MacArthur fired for this

• China attacks back

• Ceasefire between them to this day

• First real UN mission - USSR didn’t vote because they were boycotting UN

• Communism Vs capitalism

• Cold War showdown

• UN

• Geral assembly where everyone has a vote

• Security council with 5 permanent members and 10 temporarily elected members (each had a veto and military action couldn’t pass unless they all agreed)

• Secretary general had to remain unbiased in disputes and mediate international disputes

• Only really step in in Rwanda, Somalia (don’t do a good job), Korean War, and the Gulf War

Cuban Missile Crisis (the set-up)

• US puts missiles in Turkey

• U.S.S.R. retaliates with missile sights in Cuba

Cuba before

• Under Batista and allowed American involvement in business

  • Military dictator

• 1959 - Castro comes to power

  • 800 guerilla soldiers into Havana and overthrew Batista

  • Wanted less American involvement (more nationalist than communist but still scare US) to improve welfare

  • Us stats they won’t trade with Cuba anymore

  • Cuba gets a closer relationship with USSR

Cuban Missile Crisis (bay of pigs)

• 1961

• When Castro came to power, some fled to the US and planned and invasion with the CIA

• Kennedy authorizes them to attack bay of pigs with Airforce help

• Invasion is easily crushed by Cuba

• CIA thought Kennedy would give in and send ground soldiers but but he doesn’t

• Results in embarrassment for US and Cuba is convinced it needs U.S.S.R. military assistance

• Alliance for progress

  • Shoving money into countries with economic hardship so they won’t fall under the Soviet sphere

Cuban Missile Crisis (missiles in Cuba)

• By October it’s clear missile bases are being built

  • International crisis with the potential for nuclear war

• Brinkmanship

  • Brink of war

  • Waiting for the other to make a move

  • The us has three choices : nuclear strike, air and land attack, or naval blockade

  • Choose blockade but call it a quarantine so it’s not an act of war

  • SU ships with dangerous materials turn around, let the ones with food through

  • Privately Turkey missiles are dismantled

Cuban Missile Crisis (Results)

• Kennedy’s reputation is improved

• Better communication is set up with a hot line between Washington and Moscow to avoid future instances of brinksmanship

• Signing of a partial test-ban treaty in 63 by US, SU, and BR

  • Agreed to ban all tests of nuclear device except those underground

• US still refused to trade with Cuba - LASTS DECADES

Establishment of Communism in China (a doozy)

Background

• Europeans and Japanese Chad economic spheres of interest in China

• 1900-boxer rebellion against foreigners was unsuccessful

Revolution of the double Tenth

• Manchu dynasty felled by Sun Yat-sen

  • Wanted to created a new China based on nationalism, democracy, and socialism

• Proclaimed the Republic of China i! 1912

KMT (Kuomintang)

• Created by Yat-sen in 1912

• Nationalist

• Different people vying for power

• Chiang Kai-shek becomes leader in 1925

Chinese Communists Party

• Created in 1921

• 9 founding members including Mao Tse-tung

  • Philosophical ideologies

  • Former librarian

KMT turns on communists

• Warlords (feudal system)in the North are a large threat to the two groups agree to work together

• Chiang wanted to be the sole ruler of China and needed backing of powerful businessmen who didn’t like the communists

• April 1927 → Chiang orders his forces to turn on Communists who escape to the south

  • Easily recognizable with the red

  • Killed in the streets

  • Pretty successful

Mao regroups

• Focus on peasants rather than industrial workers

• “People’s Liberation Army” created and became well trained in guerilla tactics

The long march

• Started with 100 000, ended with 20 000

• 24 miles a day

• Lots of rivers and mountains

• 1934-35

• After capturing Peking and the rest of China in 28, Chiang looks back to the communists and encircles them in the south

• Mai and his followers set off on a year long march of the northern province of Shensi where they created a new base at Yenan

• Along the way, they treated peasants well and spread their communists ideals

  • Get mad at landlords but don’t take land

  • Gain support

Japan invades Manchuria

• 1931

• Chiang more concerned with communists so they don’t really resist

• 37 → japan invades rest of China

• Common enemy to defeat J

• Mao does most of the fighting

• Us backs the nationalists but they sit back to they are strong to fight Mao later

• People see Mao is fighting for them, results in more support

WWII end

• Us helps KMT seize most of southern China and cities in the north

• Comm. Hold north countryside and got no help from retreating soviets trying to get back Manchuria

Civil war resumes

• KMT outnumber communists 3 to 1, controlled air and were supplied by the us

• 48 - Mao’s army is 3 mil and in 49 they take Peking

• Red army pushes KMT back onto modern day Taiwan

China under Mao

Government

• Democratic dictatorship

  • All four Social classes represented and met in local assemblies but controlled by Mao

• Freedom of speech if it didn’t go against the gov.

• “Mandate of Heaven”

• Labour camps and reeducation for political opponents

• Purges - killed 5.5mil in 5 years

Economy

• Followed Stalin’s plans

• Ended private land ownership, but distributed the land unequally and people were killed if they complained

• Collective farming

• Five year plans - 1st doubled industrial output in 2yrs

GLF

• 1958

• Wanted to catch up to rest of world

• Focus on engineering and science

• Everyone contributed to steel, coal, and electrifying (quantity went up, quality went down)

• Less time on agriculture

  • Great Famine (20-43 mil dead)

  • Actually a disaster

• One of the five year plans

cultural Revolution

• GLF created divisions in the party

• Mao was being questioned by Deng Xiaoping

• 1965

• To regain authority Mao gets students to get rid of counter revolutionaries

• Guided by Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong (1964)

• Got out of hand and he had to call in the army

• Weakened party unity

• Escalated tensions with USSR & PRC

• Version of a purge

Sino-Soviet split

• Stalin always advised Mao

• Stalin stood up for Mao (boycotted UN)

• Mao didn’t like Khrushchev( criticized GLF and Stalin)

• 1960- USSR stops giving money

• 1962 - didn’t send military in border dispute with India

• 1964 - PRC gets the A-bomb

• More American involvement with PRC and potential for trade

China after Mao

Hundred flowers Campaign

• 1957

• goal was to win over the intellectuals to join communism

• Invited debate and criticism and then they would explain

• Had to be shut down bc there was too much criticism

Mao dies

• Deng Xiaoping wins struggle for power in 1981

• Pursued “four modernizations”

  • Agriculture, industry, science and tech, military

• Workers were paid bonuses , herd uni entrance exams rather that political records (good communists got to go to school), favoured small and medium industry, students could study abroad

modern issues

• State capitalism - allows more private industry but no political freedom

• Tiananmen Square

  • June 1989

  • Same year as Berlin Wall coming down

  • Student protests in the square against corruption (1gov), lack of transparency, and no freedom of speech

  • Martial law imposed and tanks sent in to fire on unarmed protesters

  • Hunger Strikes and tear gas

  • Thousands injured

  • Foreign media expelled but not before it was broadcasted

  • Hong Kong - private business allowed

  • Taiwan - still ongoing and showmanship in the waterways

  • Human rights issues

Mao

• Unified the country

• Centralized the gov

• Increased industrial output

• Increased literacy rate (20% → 76%)

• Major military power

• Made the A-bomb

• No freedom of expression

India

After WWII

• moving away from British ruler

• During war, Indian Congress Party mounted campaign of civil disobedience and leaders were imprisoned under the slogan of “British quit India”

• British attitudes changed after the war and they let them go because it was too expensive

  • new Labour Leaders (basically the NDP) were socialist and voted in

  • BR and couldn’t been seen exploiting India

• Salt March

  • Br increased taxes on salt

  • Gandhi marched to the ocean and boiled down water for salt

• Country was city states with many different ethnicities

  • Mainly Hindu and Muslim

• Congress Party

  • Hindu supported

  • Led by Nehru

  • India

• Muslim League

  • Supported by Muslims

  • Pakistan

  • Led by Jinnah

• BR hoped to give independence to a UNIFIED country but there were huge divisions and violence between religious and political groups

• BR says they’ll leave by June 48 and make a partition between the groups - UN asked to help with handover that took place on August 15, 1947

  • India - under Nehru for Hindus and Sikhs

  • Pakistan under Jinnah for the Muslims

• Millions of people had to move to the different sides - resulted in lots of people killed

  • Bloodshed was avoided when Gandhi went on a hunger strike when Hindu refugees threatened to kill remaining Muslims in Delhi

  • Killed by Hindu extremists (his own religion)

  • Violence lessened

Kashmir

• Didn’t originally join either side

• Hindu ruler but large Muslim population - religious tensions

• Oct. 47, groups from Pakistan invade and K appeals to India for troops - they supply it

• 49 - UN arranges for a ceasefire line to be put in place, splits Kashmir between both sides

• 65-66 - another clash but USSR facilitates negotiations at the Tashkent Conference

• 99 - conflict again but between two nuclear nations

  • India gets bomb in 74, Pakistan gets it in 98

Internal turmoil

• Industrialises and modernises but it can’t keep up with large population growth

• Most people are illiterate into the 60s

• Trouble choosing official language because there are so many

  • 65 - Hindi is chooses - riots break out

• 66 - Indira Gandhi (Nehru’s daughter and first female leader in a modern country) becomes PM

  • pushes for modernisation but also declares “state of emergency” for 2 years, suspending democracy

  • Leads non-alignment movement - nice to both sides of the Cold War

Creation of Bangladesh

• East Pakistan (lots of flooding) is poorer than the western part and more populated

• The Bengla Desh (Free Bengal) movement wants a free East Pakistan - civil war

• thousands die and millions of Hindus flee to India

• Indira orders troops into East Pakistan Dc. 4, 71

• Dec. 16 - P army surrenders

• New country of Bangladesh is created

• Pakistan supported by US, India by USSR

Pubjab

• had been divided by the partition, mostly sikh

• 83 - sikh extremists demand independence from India (country will be called Khalistan)

• June 84 - Indira orders Indian troops to the Golden Temple in Amritsar (headquarters for extremists)

  • 300 sikhs killed and the temple is destroyed

  • Oct 84 - Indira is assassinated by her sikh bodyguards

  • Terrorism continues in Punjab

• Sri Lanka is its own country

Sides in the Cold War (middle east)

• Us - Israel, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Jordan

• USSR - PLO, Egypt, syria, iraq

The Suez Crisis

• Nasser (Egypt) seized control of the Suez Canal to raise money for the Aswan Dam to make more fertile land after the U.S. pulled out of their loan to Egypt - gonna raise money from the canal

  • US pulled out because it seemed like Nasser was being nice to the communists and they didn’t like that

• BR and FR were mad they were losing money

  • Fr contacted Israel and got them to help with a military attack

  • OCT 1956, Br and Fr attacked from the air, and Israel led the ground and got control over the Sinai region which was now covered with Un peacekeepers

• US and USSR condemmed the attack, forces were removed, and the canal was reopened

• Nasser is seen has a hero who stood up to imperial powers

civil war in Lebanon and violent peace

• refugees from Israel upset the peace between religious groups in the nation which resulted in 15yrs of civil war

• PLO launched attacks on Israel from Lebanon

• Camp David Accords (terms for settling Suez canal and sinai region disputes) made a border between Israel and Egypt and created a format for negotiations for a palestine homeland

Middle east background, six day war, yom kippur War

• 1917 - Balfour Declaration - BR in favour of making a Jewish state in Palestine

• During WWII Br indicated P could be independent but they ended as a mandate

• Sympathy for Jews after the Holocaust

• Br asked the Un to come up with a partition plan for P and Arabs rejected it but Israel was declared in May 1948

• conflict about each decade

• refugee issue to refused to be solved until the issue of P and I are solved

• June 1967

• Nasser orders Un troops out of Sinai and Gulf of Aqaba and builds up his military

• Israel strikes and defeats Egypt, Syria, and Jordan - they now control Sinai, Gaza, West Bank, and Goban Heights

• See Arab states can’t protect P homeland

• Superpowers are more determined to support their sides

• UN calls for withdrawal from newly aquired territory

• 1973

• Anwar Sadat replaces Nasser

• OCT 6, E and S attack I

• US and USSR force a ceasefire

• Egypt has east side of Suez canal and Israel is allowed to use it

• Oil is a weapon

arab unity, revolution, war, gulf war

• syria built up their army with the help of USSR and replaced E as the driving force behind Arab nations struggle against Israel

• Support for palestine united countries but wasn’t enough

• political fragmentation

• contrasts between secular ideologies and Islamic fundamentals

• 1978 - opposition to the regime of Shah (king) Pahlevi dynasty (us friendly) from various groups

• JAN 1979 - massive street demonstrations forced the king into exile and power was assumed by fundamentalist Islamic movement

  • no american

• oil shortages

• Nearby Muslim fundamentalism is threatened - weakens Turkey

  • pro-west regimes in Saudi Arabia and Egypt

• Soviets worried about spread into Afghanistan

• Teheran Hostage situation

• 1980-1988

• Saddam Hussein becomes pres in 79 and thought he could profit from the internal upheaval in Iran and invaded in 1980

• By 1982 is was clear it would be a quick victory

• Saw himself as heir to Nassar - mobilizing Arabs against Iran and Israel - failed

• 1991

• Iraq invades Kuwait to get the oilfields and threatens Saudi Arabia

• UN approves military sanctions to remove Iraq from Kuwait

• UN forces us SA as staging ground for troops

• Mostly air war but ground forces were sent into battle and quickly pushed troops back into iraq

recent

• first Intifadah - 1987

• Oslo accords - 1993/95

• Second infadah - early 2000s

• Hamas wins Palestine elections - 2006

• Hamas Israel conflicts - 08/09, 12, 14, 21

• I builds settlements in Occupied Territories despite UN resolutions for them to stop and international court saying it’s illegal

• Hamas launched and attack from Gaza killing 1200 people and taking 250 hostages, Israel responds with invasion

Russian Revolution

1861

• End of serfdom in Russia

• Industrial growth and growth of the proletariat

• Economically behind the West

1903

• Creation of the Social Democratic Party

• Lenin is a member

  • Creates Marxist-Leninism which divides the party

• party separates into the Mensheviks led by Kerensky and the Bolsheviks (radical approach to change) led my Lenin

1905

• Russo-Japanese War

• Bloody Sunday

• 1905 Revolution

• Result: Duma and Soviets created - parliament has no real power

• Dumas fail bc the Tsar ignores them

• People want revolution (lower classes)

1914

• Initial support but then the forces are beaten and there’s hunger shortages

1917

• February/March Revolution

  • Strike in Petrograd leads to barricades - army don’t fire on protesters but join the revolution

  • Tsar abdicates and a provisional government is set up - Kerensky is leader

  • Petrograd Soviet doesn’t support them for long

  • Petrograd issues Order 1 - underlings don’t have to salute the higher ups

• April

  • Lenin arrives in a train supplied by Germany and issues April Theses

  • “Peace Bread Land”

  • “All power to the soviets”

• July

  • Demonstrations by the Bolsheviks fail

  • Lenin goes to Finland

  • Trotsky (Lenin’s master of logistics) is jailed

  • Kornilov coup (army) is stopped

    • Kerensky releases the Bolsheviks and arms them to fight for the gov

  • Bolsheviks gain control of the Petrograd Soviet

• October/November

  • Lenin comes back (surprise surprise)

  • Trotsky organizes the capture of key infrastructure points in Petrograd

  • Winter Palace is stormed by the Bolsheviks

  • Kerensky is exiled

  • Bolsheviks have control of Petrograd but not the country

Everything about Apartheid

• Domino effect of one colony wanting freedom so all were let go, also pressured by the Us

• South Africa originally colonized by the Dutch, ties broken with Netherlands in the early 1800s

• 1899 - Boer war over gold - Brit’s won

• 1910 - self-governing dominion in the commonwealth

• 1961 - leaves commonwealth

• 1948 - Apartheid becomes law

  • No relaxations made until 79

  • They weren’t allowed to strike, form unions, or vote

  • Segregation of everything

  • Illegal to marry a different race

  • Only allowed to live in a certain area

  • Anyone opposing was branded a communist

  • Passbooks

• People opposed (African National Congress) - led my Nelson Mandela- non violet resistance

• 1960 - Sharpeville

  • Open fire on a sit in protesting the pass books

• Cheap labour

• No one wanted to trade with them (Africa) because they were considered white

• Sanctions from other countries finally convinced to abolish the pass laws

• No more segregation and Nelson Mandela freed in 1989

• 1994 - first free election - Mandela wins

• Hard to build a new country when racism is so ingrained - takes a while

Segregation in the US

• After civil war, three constitutional amendments made

  • Slavery was abolished

  • African-Americans were made citizens

  • African-American men were given the right to vote

    • literacy tests

• KKK

• WWII desegregated the army - same year as UN charter of rights

Truman

• 1945-1952

• Democrat

• Established a human rights commission

Eisenhower

• 1952-1960

• Republican

• supreme court declared all students must attend the same schools

• “separate by equal” declared dead

  • igrnored

• 1957 - National Guard and Little Rock Highschool in Arkansas

• Bus company in Alabama was forced to desegregate buses because of the money

• Sit ins in public spaces - non-violent

• 1963 - “I’ve got a dream”

Kennedy

• 1960-1963

• Democrat

• focused on foreign policy

• protest movements

• asked congress to pass limited Civil Rights Bill

• died