Practical practice questions

Where is the hypothalamus located, and what is its role in the endocrine system?

• The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus in the brain and regulates the pituitary gland by secreting releasing and inhibiting hormones.

What hormones does the anterior pituitary secrete, and what are their functions?

 The anterior pituitary secretes FSH (stimulates gamete production), LH (triggers ovulation/testosterone production), ACTH (stimulates adrenal cortex), and TSH (stimulates thyroid hormone production).

Which hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary?

• Oxytocin (stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection) and ADH (regulates water balance by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys).

What is the location and primary function of the thyroid gland?

• The thyroid gland is located in the neck and produces thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) for regulating metabolism and calcitonin to lower blood calcium.

 How do the parathyroid glands regulate calcium levels in the blood?

• The parathyroid glands secrete PTH, which increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption, calcium absorption in the intestines, and calcium reabsorption in the kidneys.

What hormones does the adrenal medulla release, and what are their effects?

•  Epinephrine and norepinephrine, which trigger the fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose availability.

What hormones are secreted by the pancreas, and how do they regulate blood glucose?

Insulin lowers blood glucose by facilitating cellular uptake, while glucagon raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown in the liver.

What hormones do the gonads produce, and what roles do they play in reproduction?

Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone for regulating the menstrual cycle and supporting pregnancy. Testes produce testosterone for sperm production and male secondary sexual characteristics.

 What is the primary function of Growth Hormone (GH)?

GH stimulates growth of tissues and regulates metabolism by promoting protein synthesis and fat breakdown.

How does Prolactin (PRL) affect the body?

PRL stimulates milk production in nursing mothers.

Why is cortisol considered a stress hormone, and what does it do to blood glucose levels?

Cortisol increases blood glucose levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis in the liver during stress, providing energy for the body.

What role does aldosterone play in water and sodium regulation?

Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys, indirectly conserving water and maintaining blood pressure.

Which hormones are involved in the fight-or-flight response?

 Epinephrine and norepinephrine, which increase heart rate, blood pressure, and energy release

What happens to a goldfish when insulin is administered?

Insulin causes hypoglycemia, making the goldfish lethargic.

How does glucagon reverse the effects of insulin in a goldfish?

 Glucagon raises blood glucose levels, restoring the goldfish's activity.

What effect does FSH have when injected into a leopard frog?

FSH stimulates reproductive organ development and gamete production.

How does epinephrine affect the heart rate and contraction force in the bullfrog experiment?

Epinephrine increases both heart rate and contraction force.

What is the effect of acetylcholine (ACH) on the heart?

ACH decreases heart rate and contraction force.

What is the primary role of the SA node in the heart?

It acts as the pacemaker, initiating the heartbeat.

Why does the AV node delay the impulse, and how is this beneficial? 

The delay allows complete atrial contraction before the ventricles contract, ensuring efficient blood flow.

What is the function of the Purkinje fibers in the heart's conduction system?

They stimulate the ventricles to contract, enabling blood ejection.

What are the four heart valves, and what is their role in blood circulation?

Tricuspid, bicuspid, pulmonary, and aortic valves prevent backflow and ensure unidirectional blood flow.

 Between which chambers are the tricuspid and bicuspid valves located?

Tricuspid: RA and RV. Bicuspid: LA and LV.

What does an ECG measure?

The electrical activity of the heart.

What is represented by the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave?

 P wave: Atrial depolarization. QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization. T wave: Ventricular repolarization.

What is the primary function of erythrocytes (RBCs)?

Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide via hemoglobin.

How do platelets contribute to hemostasis?

By forming clots to prevent bleeding.

Which types of white blood cells (WBCs) are involved in fighting parasitic infections?

Eosinophils

 Which WBCs produce antibodies, and which ones directly attack pathogens?

B cells produce antibodies, while T cells attack pathogens directly.

What are the normal ranges for RBC, WBC, and platelet counts?

RBC: ~4.5-6 million/μL; WBC: ~5,000-10,000/μL; Platelets: ~150,000-450,000/μL.

What does an increase in neutrophils indicate about a patient’s condition?

A bacterial infection.

Why might eosinophil levels be elevated in a patient?

Due to a parasitic infection or allergic reaction.

What is agglutination, and how is it used in blood typing?

Agglutination is the clumping of blood cells caused by antigen-antibody reactions. It's used in blood typing to identify specific antigens on RBCs when mixed with antibodies (anti-A, anti-B, or anti-D).

Why is the Rh factor important in pregnancy?

If an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive baby, her body can produce antibodies against the baby's RBCs, leading to hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN).

How does RhoGAM prevent erythroblastosis fetalis?

RhoGAM contains anti-Rh antibodies that destroy fetal Rh-positive RBCs before the mother's immune system can react.

Which blood type is the universal donor, and why?

O-negative, because it lacks A, B, and Rh antigens, reducing the risk of immune reactions in recipients.

Why can an AB+ individual receive blood from all donors?

AB+ individuals have all antigens (A, B, and Rh) and lack antibodies against them, making them universal recipients.

What is the correct sequence of blood flow through the heart?

Superior/Inferior Vena Cava → Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Valve → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs → Pulmonary Veins → Left Atrium → Bicuspid Valve → Left Ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta.

Which vessels carry oxygen-rich blood, and which carry oxygen-poor blood?

Pulmonary veins and systemic arteries carry oxygen-rich blood. Pulmonary arteries and systemic veins carry oxygen-poor blood.

What is the primary function of the systemic circuit?

It delivers oxygenated blood to the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart.

How does the pulmonary circuit differ from the systemic circuit?

The pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation and returns oxygenated blood to the heart.

What is the coronary circuit, and why is it important?

The coronary circuit supplies the heart muscle (myocardium) with oxygen and nutrients.

How do arteries differ structurally from veins, and how does this relate to their function?

Arteries have thicker walls to withstand higher pressure and lack valves. Veins have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow of blood.

What are valves in veins, and why are they important?

Valves ensure unidirectional blood flow, especially in low-pressure veins, preventing backflow.

How many branches does the human aorta have, and what are their names?

Three: brachiocephalic trunk, left common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery.

How is the branching of the aorta in cats different from humans?

Cats have only two branches: brachiocephalic trunk and left subclavian artery.

How does the lymphatic system contribute to fluid balance?

It collects excess interstitial fluid from tissues and returns it to the circulatory system via lymphatic vessels.

What is the role of lymph nodes in immunity?

Lymph nodes filter pathogens and house immune cells like lymphocytes that respond to infections.

What is the function of the tonsils in protecting the body from infection?

Tonsils trap and destroy pathogens entering through the mouth and nose.

How does the spleen filter blood?

It removes old or damaged RBCs and filters out pathogens and debris.

What is the function of the ductus arteriosus in fetal circulation?

It bypasses the lungs by connecting the pulmonary artery to the aorta, allowing oxygenated blood to flow directly into systemic circulation.

How does the foramen ovale help bypass the lungs in a fetus?

It shunts blood directly from the right atrium to the left atrium, bypassing the non-functioning fetal lungs.

What happens to the umbilical veins and arteries after birth?

They close and form ligaments—umbilical arteries become the medial umbilical ligaments, and the umbilical vein becomes the ligamentum teres.

What equipment was used to check BP?

sphygmomanometer

What artery is most commonly used in adults?

brachial artery

What are the normal range values for the adult’s pulse and BP?

60-100 bpm 120/80 mmHg

polycythemia

an abnormal increase in the number of red blood cells (RBCs) in the bloodstream. This can lead to thicker blood, which slows circulation and increases the risk of complications like blood clots, strokes, and heart attacks

What does EKG/ECG stand for

Electrocardiogram