Unit 9 FR

Hi

Stereotypes

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an overgeneralized belief about a particular group of people

Prejudice

a preconceived judgment or emotional feeling directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group 

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Stereotypes

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an overgeneralized belief about a particular group of people

Prejudice

a preconceived judgment or emotional feeling directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group 

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discrimination

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he unjust treatment toward a person based on a particular group to which they belong

reference groups

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 group that that we compare ourselves to when evaluating our behaviors

relative depriviation

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perception by an individual that the amount of a desired resource (e.g. money, social status, etc.) he/she has is less than comparison to people in their reference group.  Leads to feelings of inferiority or entitlement.

downward social comparisons

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when people compare themselves to those who are less proficient than they are (to make themselves feel better)

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

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false consensus effect

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overestimating how much other people share our beliefs and behaviors

self perception theory

people develop their attitudes by observing their own behavior and then concluding what attitudes must have caused it 

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ingroip bias

Tendency for humans to be more helpful and positive towards members of their own group over members of an out-group

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out group bias

Negative categorizations, feelings, or ideas about people who are not part of our ingroup.

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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the tendency to view an outgroup as homogenous, or as “all the same,” whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied.

self fulfilling prophecy

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own beliefs lead you to act in ways that fulfill our expectations

cognitive dissonance

mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values. 

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OR when our Affect, Behavior, &/or Cognitions aren’t congruent….. This dissonance drives us to change either one of our beliefs &/or our behavior so that they realign. 

fundamental attribution error ( FAE )

ONLY FOCUSING ON OTHERS

Negative behaviors of others = internal

Positive behaviors of others = external

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Self serving bias

ONLY FOCUSING ON YOURSELF

Own negative behaviors = external

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Own positive behaviors = internal

actor observer bias

Negative behaviors: me (actor) = external, you (observer) = internal

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Positive behaviors: me (actor) = internal, you (observer) = external

• Central route to persuasion,

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When attitudes are formed or changed as a result of carefully scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant information

Peripheral route to persuasion

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When persuasion depends on non-message factors, such as the attractiveness and credibility of the source, or on conditioned emotional responses

• Norm of reciprocity

the "rule" that we should pay back (reciprocate) what we receive from others

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foot in the door

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 getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having them agree to a smaller request

door in the face

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making a large request of someone, that they will most likely  turn down, so they are more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request.

• Social loafing,

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exerting less effort when working on a task when in groups than when working alone (due to diffusion of resp.)

, Social facilitation,

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presence of others = improves one's performance

Social impairment

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presence of others = hinders one's performance

group polarization

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tendency for groups to make more extreme decisions than the initial inclination of each individual member

group think

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Best to have a “devil’s advocate” to reduce this tendency

when desire for harmony or conformity within a group leads to dysfunctional or irrational decision-making

• Bystander effect,

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people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone

Diffusion of responsibility,

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when others are present, a person is less likely to feel the obligation to take responsibility

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*they assume others are responsible for taking action or have already done so

Deindividuation 

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the loss of self-awareness/personal identity when in groups due to perceived lack of accountability

• Social norms,

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The perceived informal, mostly unwritten, rules that define acceptable and appropriate actions. within a given group or community, thus guiding human behavior

Normative influence,

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when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences  (want to fit in)

Informational influence

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when people conform in ambiguous situations (because they are unsure what to do)

• Mere-exposure effect (could be applied to either attraction or influencing attitudes)

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the finding that repeated exposures to a stimulus promotes greater liking of the stimulus (no cognition)

Behavioral approach

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Behavior is learned through observation, rewards/punishments, & making associations

Cognitive approach

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Mental processes, such as thoughts, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, etc., influence behavior

Sociocultural approach

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Societal & cultural factors influences behavior (e.g. norms & expectations from family, peers, media, gender, religion, ethnicity, etc.)

, Psychodynamic approach

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Unconscious urges/impulses &/or repressed memories of early childhood trauma influence behavior

Humanistic approach

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Behavior is explained using the following beliefs: Humans are inherently good; we are striving to reach our potential; we each have a unique perception & self-concept; we all have free-will

Constructive memory,

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Using existing knowledge/schemas/experiences to fill in the gaps in info during encoding and retrieval. 

context dependent memory,

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remember info best in the same/similar physical location as where info was learned. 

mood congruency 

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info processing/recall is facilitated if a person's emotional state is similar to the tone of the info; or same emotional state

Representative heuristic,

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A mental shortcut where someone makes a decision based on how something fits their schema or prototype of a concept.

Availability heuristic,

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A mental shortcut in decision making based on how readily (quickly) relevant instances come to mind (based on headlines, recent experiences, etc.).

Framing,  

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Decision making can be affected by how choices are structured. (i.e. wording of questions)

Prototype

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best example of a category (icon for the schema; allows for quick comparison)

• Reliability (including types)

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consistency of scores (Can you replicate results?)

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test retest: Measuring the stability/correlation of a test over time.

Simply, same test to same person at a different time (or giving the same test to two different groups)

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alternate (parallel) form :Using 'parallel' measurements & comparing their correlation. Simply, different test (assuming same content & same difficulty) to same person.

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split half: Measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally (correlate) to what is being measured

More simply, looking within 1 test given at 1 time.

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inter-rater- The degree to which (correlation) different raters give consistent measurements

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Validity (including types),

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Does the measurement tool assess what it is designed for? 

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content validity: Does the measurement tool fully assess all components of the behavior/topic/theory being studied?

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crieterion-related validity : Does a specific component of the measurement tool truly assess the behavior/topic/theory being studied?

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construct validity : Does the measurement tool accurately assess the theory being tested?

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predicitvie validity: Does the measurement tool accurately predict future outcomes?

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Stereotype threat (Unit 5)

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Stereotype Threat is when worry about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance on a test or other task by a member of the stereotyped group

• Big 5 Traits: Openness,

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high and low

Conscientiousness,

Extraversion,

, Agreeableness,

, Neuroticism