Unit 9 FR

Hi

Stereotypes

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an overgeneralized belief about a particular group of people

Prejudice

a preconceived judgment or emotional feeling directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group 

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discrimination

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he unjust treatment toward a person based on a particular group to which they belong

reference groups

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 group that that **we compare ourselves to** when evaluating our behaviors

relative depriviation

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perception by an individual that the amount of a desired resource (e.g. money, social status, etc.) he/she has is **less than comparison to people in their reference group**.  Leads to feelings of inferiority or entitlement.

downward social comparisons

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when people **compare themselves to those who are less proficient** than they are (to make themselves feel better)

spotlight effect

o**verestimating others' noticing** and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

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false consensus effect

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overestimating how much other people share our beliefs and behaviors

self perception theory

people develop their attitudes by **observing their own behavior** and **then concluding** what attitudes must have caused it 

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ingroip bias

Tendency for humans to be more helpful and positive towards members of their own group over members of an out-group

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out group bias

Negative categorizations, feelings, or ideas about people who are not part of our ingroup.

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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the tendency to view an outgroup as homogenous, or as “all the same,” whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied.

self fulfilling prophecy

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own beliefs lead you to act in ways that fulfill our expectations

cognitive dissonance

mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values. 

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OR when our Affect, Behavior, &/or Cognitions aren’t congruent….. This dissonance drives us to change either one of our beliefs &/or our behavior so that they realign. 

fundamental attribution error ( FAE )

*ONLY FOCUSING ON OTHERS*

Negative behaviors of others = internal

Positive behaviors of others = external

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Self serving bias

*ONLY FOCUSING ON YOURSELF*

Own negative behaviors = external

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Own positive behaviors = internal

actor observer bias

Negative behaviors: me (actor) = external, you (observer) = internal

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Positive behaviors: me (actor) = internal, you (observer) = external

* Central route to persuasion,

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When attitudes are formed or changed as a result of carefully scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant information

Peripheral route to persuasion

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When persuasion depends on non-message factors, such as the attractiveness and credibility of the source, or on conditioned emotional responses

* Norm of reciprocity

the "rule" that we should **pay back (reciprocate)** what we receive from others

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foot in the door

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 getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having them agree to a smaller request

door in the face

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making a large request of someone, that they will most likely  turn down, so they are more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request.

* Social loafing,

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exerting **less effort** when working on a task **when in groups** than when working alone (due to diffusion of resp.)

, Social facilitation,

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**presence of others** = **improves** one's performance

Social impairment

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**presence of others** = **hinders** one's performance

group polarization

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tendency for groups to make **more extreme decisions** than the initial inclination of each individual member

group think

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**Best to have a “devil’s advocate” to reduce this tendency**

when **desire for harmony** or conformity within a group leads to dysfunctional or **irrational decision-making**

* Bystander effect,

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people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone

Diffusion of responsibility,

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when others are present, a person is less likely to feel the obligation to take responsibility

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\**they assume others are responsible for taking action or have already done so*

Deindividuation 

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the **loss of self-awareness/personal identity** when in groups due to **perceived lack of accountability**

* Social norms,

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The perceived informal, mostly unwritten, rules that define acceptable and appropriate actions. within a given group or community, thus guiding human behavior

Normative influence,

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when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences  (want to fit in)

Informational influence

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when people conform in ambiguous situations (because they are unsure what to do)

* Mere-exposure effect (could be applied to either attraction or influencing attitudes)

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the finding that **repeated exposures** to a stimulus promotes **greater liking** of the stimulus (no cognition)

Behavioral approach

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Behavior is **learned** through **observation**, **rewards/punishments**, & making **associations**

Cognitive approach

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**Mental processes**, such as **thoughts**, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, etc., influence behavior

Sociocultural approach

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**Societal & cultural** factors influences behavior (e.g. norms & expectations from family, peers, media, gender, religion, ethnicity, etc.)

, Psychodynamic approach

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**Unconscious** urges/impulses &/or **repressed** memories of early childhood trauma influence behavior

Humanistic approach

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Behavior is explained using the following beliefs: Humans are **inherently good**; we are striving to reach our **potential**; we each have a **unique** perception & self-concept; we all have **free-will**

Constructive memory,

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Using existing knowledge/__**schemas**__/experiences to **fill in the gaps** in info during encoding and retrieval. 

context dependent memory,

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remember info best in the same/similar __physical location__ as where info was learned. 

mood congruency 

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info processing/recall is facilitated if a person's __emotional state__ is similar to the tone of the info; or same emotional state

Representative heuristic,

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A **mental shortcut** where someone makes a decision based on how something **fits their** ***schema*** **or** ***prototype*** of a concept.

Availability heuristic,

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A **mental shortcut** in decision making based on how readily (quickly) **relevant instances come to mind** (based on headlines, recent experiences, etc.).

Framing,  

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Decision making can be affected by how choices are structured. (i.e. wording of questions)

Prototype

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best example of a category *(icon for the schema; allows for quick comparison)*

* Reliability (including types)

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__consistency__ of scores (Can you replicate results?)

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test retest: Measuring the stability/correlation of a test over time.

Simply, same test to same person at a different time (or giving the same test to two different groups)

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alternate (parallel) form :Using 'parallel' measurements & comparing their correlation. Simply, different test (assuming same content & same difficulty) to same person.

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split half: Measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally (correlate) to what is being measured

More simply, looking within 1 test given at 1 time.

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inter-rater- The degree to which (correlation) different raters give consistent measurements

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Validity (including types),

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Does the measurement tool assess what it is designed for? 

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content validity: Does the measurement tool fully assess all components of the behavior/topic/theory being studied?

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crieterion-related validity : Does a specific component of the measurement tool truly assess the behavior/topic/theory being studied?

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construct validity : Does the measurement tool accurately assess the theory being tested?

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predicitvie validity: Does the measurement tool accurately predict future outcomes?

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Stereotype threat (Unit 5)

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Stereotype Threat is when worry about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance on a test or other task by a member of the stereotyped group

* Big 5 Traits: Openness,

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high and low

Conscientiousness,

Extraversion,

, Agreeableness,

, Neuroticism