CPSY 4302 exam 3

microsystem

Parenting is in which system in Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Framework?

- rat pups of high-licking mothers were less stressed as adults compared to rat pups of low-licking mothers

- cross-fostering the rat pups led to those raised by high-licking mothers to be less stressed as adults

Effects of high-quality caregiving on rat pups

1. survival

2. facilitate learning

3. buffer stress response

Functions of caregiving in infancy

sensitivity and responsivity

Describe the 2 characteristics of high-quality caregiving

interactions between infants and caregivers that are characterized by mutual attention, affective matching, and regulation

What is dyadic synchrony?

- mothers typically spend more time than fathers on daily caregiving activities like feeding, bathing, and comforting

- fathers are more likely to interact with infants and toddlers in physically stimulating ways

Differences in caregiving between mothers and fathers

pervasive and lingering despair that affects their ability to care for an interact effectively with their baby

What is postpartum depression?

- less likely to show preference for stimuli of their mothers face/voice

- lower activity levels during interactions with their mothers

- 4-month-old infants learn less from their mother's infant-directed speech compared to infants of non-depressed mothers

How does postpartum depression influence infant development?

family stress model: parents in poverty tend to be more stressed, which influences their mood and emotions, their cognitive capabilities, and their social relationships = lower quality parenting

family resource model: parents in poverty have fewer financial resources to provide stimulating and educational materials for their children and less time to devote to their children because they are more likely to have nonstandard and less flexible work schedules

Family stress model vs. family resource model

1. child abuse can occur in any family, regardless of socioeconomic status or social standing of the parents

2. stressful home environments

3. non-biological adults in the home are more likely to commit child abuse

4. history of violence

5. unrealistic expectations of child development

Factors associated with child maltreatment

proximal parenting: a pattern of caregiving in which parents maintain close, nearly constant physical contact with babies, respond quickly when they cry or are hungry, and highlight the importance of social connections and interdependence among members of the family

distal parenting: a pattern of caregiving in which parents have physical contact with babies but emphasize face-to-face verbal and vocal interaction, and encourage infants to look at toys or other object while they talk about and manipulate them together, reinforcing the value of independence and self-reliance

Proximal vs. distal parenting

- counseling, psychotherapy, and antidepressant or anti-anxiety medication can relieve some forms of depression

- coaching depressed women face-to-face interactions with their infants and targeting mothers' mood states through massage or music therapy

- helpful if the father, grandparents, or other non depressed caregivers actively participate in the baby's daily care

- infant massage therapy

Interventions for postpartum depression

secure base: promotes exploration

safe haven: provides comfort and regulation

Describe the 2 basic functions of an attachment relationship

- infant monkeys preferred the cloth mother

- particularly true in times of stress

How did the studies with Harlow's monkeys change the view of attachment relationships?

infants:

- crying

- preference for faces

caregivers:

- differential brain activity in response to human infant faces

- response to crying

- oxytocin in women associated with social bonding

Infant and caregiver preparedness for attachment

1. strange situation

2. attachment Q-sort

Describe 2 ways to measure attachment in infancy

- seek proximity with caregiver

- maintain contact with caregiver

- become upset when mother leaves

- go to mother when she returns

- use mother as home base

What are the characteristics of a secure attachment?

1. avoidant- do not seek proximity, avoid mother when she returns

2. resistant- combination of positive and negative reactions to mother, distress when mother leaves, close contact but hit and kick her

3. disorganized- inconsistent, often contradictory behavior, may freeze up when parent enters the rom

Describe the 3 types of insecure attachments

1. secure- sensitive and responsive caregiving

2. resistant- inconsistent and unpredictable caregiving

3. avoidant- unresponsive caregiving & promote premature independence

4. disorganized- associated with institutional care and maltreatment

How are caregiving characteristics related to different attachment styles?

promote secure attachments in high-risk CPS involved families

What is the purpose of the Attachment and Biobehavioral Catchup intervention?

German- more likely to be insecure avoidant

Japanese- higher rates of insecure attachments

Institutionalized children- disorganized attachment

Cultural influences on attachment style

- the primary attachment relationship acts as a prototype for all future relationships

- guides child's understanding of how to interact with others and what to expect from others

What is the internal working model?

secure attachments are associated with long-term positive outcomes in academic achievement, quality peer relationships, satisfaction in romantic relationships

Links between attachment security and later outcomes

type of attachment that may develop in institutionalized infants who are severely maltreated, characterized by emotionally withdrawn-inhibited or indiscriminately social-disinhibited behavior

What is reactive attachment disorder

1. individual differences in patterns of arousal and emotionality

2. activity level and positive/negative emotionality are common dimensions across all 4 perspectives

3. likely a genetic base

4. relatively stable across time and situations

5. some suggestion that temperament forms the core of personality

What are the commonalities across temperament definitions?

- questionnaires

- behavioral measures

How do researchers measure temperament?

- greater variability in fetal heart rate associated with negative emotionality in infancy

- more active fetuses tend to be more active infants

- higher cortisol response to heel stick blood draw as a newborn is correlated with negative emotionality at 6 months

- social fearfulness has been linked to higher and less variable heart rate responses to unfamiliar people

Biological indicators of temperament

the degree of match between infants' temperaments and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are raised

Goodness of fit

temperament: an early look into biological dispositions before infants can acquire new skills

personality: ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling. generally broader view than temperament and in some ways less biological

- exactly HOW temperamental dispositions influence later personality traits is still unclear, but generally agreed upon that temperament provides a "core" of later personality

Relation between temperament and personality

- some associations:

- autism and decreasing adaptability/ approach

- depression and anxiety with withdrawal negativity

Links between temperament and psychopathology

- constitutionally based tendency to respond to unfamiliar people and places by becoming quiet, vigilant, restrained, and avoidant

Describe infants who are "inhibited to novelty"

- attempts to explain how individuals come to understand themselves at different stages of development

- stages in the psychosocial theory represent conflicts at different points in development

Erikson's psychosocial theory

between 18-24 months (some pass the test as early as 12 months)

When does self awareness emerge in infancy?

rouge test- red dot on nose and presenting them in front of a mirror

How can we assess self awareness?

- western cultures show earlier self awareness on the rouge test

- Cameroonian culture emphasize body contact between mother and infant and interdependence

- western cultures tend to emphasize independence and separateness

Differences in self awareness across cultures

1. 1-2 months: interest/joy

2. 3-6 months: angry/sad

3. 6-8 months: fear

4. 18-24 months:

pride, embarrassment, shame, guilt

Developmental progression of emotion expression

distress displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person

What are secondary emotions?

increasingly complex cognitive and social development contributes to the emergence of secondary emotions

How is cognitive development related to the emergence of secondary emotions?

1. infants are particularly sensitive to emotional expressions of their caregivers compared to strangers

2. 4-month-old infants looked longer at their mothers' happy face/voice pairing

3. 7-month-olds can differentially respond to matched visual and auditory emotional expressions than unmatched

4. 10-12 months, infants begin to use social referencing

5. 18-month-olds infants begin to understand that others' emotions reflect how they feel about objects, events, and people

Developmental patterns of perceiving emotions across infancy

- secure attachments are associated with greater emotion understanding during the preschool period

- 10-month-old infants of depressed mothers show more negative and less positive facial expressions and show different brain activity to happy and sad stimuli

- 3-year-olds who have been physically abused are better at discriminating angry faces compared to those who have not experienced abuse

How do caregivers influence emotion development?

refers to the process through which emotions are monitored, appraised, and modified in relation to our goals

What is emotion regulation?

committed compliance: children's tendency to follow parents' directives and requests with a minimum of prompting and reminding

situational compliance: children's tendency to require prompting and reminding in order to follow parents' directives and requests

Committed vs. situational compliance

voluntary & pleasurable

2 common themes from definitions of play

1. relational- bringing together and manipulating un related objects

2. functional- repeating an action on an object as it was intended

3. functional-relational- engaging with multiple objects as they were intended

Types of object play

1. limited in the first few months of life

2. around 4 months, infants are motivated to mouth, bang, and shake objects

3. between 7-12 months, infants are using both hands independently to play with objects

4. by 12 months, infants are engaging in more and more functional-relational play

How does object play develop over the first 12 months?

gross motor play: children use them to push toys such as small carts or pull toys that have strings, children enjoy play that involves climbing, sliding, swinging, spinning, or moving their whole body through containers such as play tunnels, gigantic cardboard boxes, and ball crawls

fine motor play: able to play with finger paint and Play-Doh, enjoy filling and emptying containers with dried beans, uncooked pasta, sand, and water

Gross vs. fine motor play

1. 0-24 months- complementary/ reciprocal play

2. 4-8 months- complementary/ reciprocal play with awareness

3. 7-13 months- simple social/ simple object

4. 13-18 months- object play with mutual regard

5. 18-24 months- simple parallel play

Changes in social play with adults over the first 24 months

- fathers tend to play more with sons

- mothers tend to play more with daughters

- around 12 months, girls tend to prefer playing with dolls or stuffed animals and boys are more likely to seek out blocks or trucks

What are examples of gendered play?

- higher SES families tend to focus more on the relation between play and children's learning

- lower SES families tend to prefer direct teaching

Different beliefs about play across socioeconomic backgrounds

- around 6-9 months, infants will intentionally direct looks, vocalizations, smiles, and touches to other infants

- by 10-12 months, infants start engaging more with peers

- by the second year of life, infants make significant strides in peer play

Development of peer play

- higher rates of engagement for longer periods of time

- play becomes organized around consistent themes

- begin to exhibit playmate preferences- prefer more social infants

What does pretend play look like in the 2nd year of life?

pretend play

What does pretend play look like in the 3rd year of life?

- video-chatting is okay

- other electronic use is discouraged, but can be used with parent facilitation

American Academy of Pediatrics screen time recommendations

for slightly older low-income children, those who watched Sesame Street had better grades, read more books, and were rated as more creative compared to their peers

Is screen time all bad for infants?

1. maternity & paternity: job-protected leave from work for a mother or father after birth or adoption

2. paternal leave: job-protected leave that is split between mothers and fathers and can typically be used until children are 2 or 3 years

3. family leave: job-protected leave for either parent that can be used for family-related needs other than birth

4. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978

5. Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993

Employment and leave policies for families

relative care: childcare provided by immediate or extended family members

non relative care: home daycare or center daycare

Relative vs. non relative care

advantages:

- home-like-setting

- location close to home or work

- mixed aged group

disadvantages:

- less oversight

- reliant on one caregiver

- mixed age group

Advantages and disadvantages of home daycare

advantages:

- licensed, transparent, oversight

- caregiver training and education

- cognitive and social curriculum

- same-age peer groups

disadvantages:

- exposure to germs

- different caregivers

- move locations due to age grouping

- same-age peer groups

Advantages and disadvantages of center daycare

- childcare was not associated with differences in attachment security

- poor quality care in combination with less sensitive parenting was associated with insecure attachment

- high quality care may buffer the effects of less sensitive parenting on attachment security

Childcare and attachment

1. possible compensatory role of childcare

2. more time in group childcare associated with more cooperative behaviors with peers

3. high-quality care compared to lower quality care was associated with better language and other school readiness

Benefits of childcare

- infants who experiences many different non relative childcare settings per week were more likely to exhibit behavior problems at 2 and 3 years

- not considering quality of care, more hours spent in childcare was associated with more aggression and disobedience in kindergarten

Negative effects of childcare

- sensitivity & responsivity

- stimulation

- supporting cognitive & social development

What are process variables to assess childcare quality?

- caregiver-to-child ratio

- education of caregivers

- safety of the environment

What are structural variables to assess childcare quality?

9-14%

Rates of high-quality childcare

Changes in childcare arrangements from 1985-2011

characteristics or circumstances that are associated with a higher probability for dysfunction

What are risk factors?

characteristics or circumstances that improve resistance to risk factors or dysfunction

What are protective factors?

- universal: interventions that can be offered to the full population regardless of risk factors

- selected: strategies that are targeted to certain subsets of the population who are identified as being at risk

- indicated: interventions that are targeted to individuals who have been identified as having an increased risk for dysfunction based on an individual assessment

Universal vs. selected vs. indicated interventions

Nurse-Family Partnership Program

Example of parent-focused intervention

Focus-Follow-Talk

Example of childcare provider-focused intervention

proximal: the specific skill or characteristic that the intervention is directly trying to change

distal: a downstream outcome that may change based on changes to the proximal outcome

Proximal vs. distal outcomes

1. control group

2. randomization to control group or intervention group

3. pre-test before intervention and post-test after intervention

How to test an intervention's effectiveness?

Sequential, Multiple Assignment, Randomized Trial- randomize participants to intervention condition

What is a SMART intervention design?

interventions that unintentionally cause harm

Iatrogenic effect

- benefits for both home- and center-based services

- higher levels of cognitive development

- higher levels of language development

- more involved object play and fewer negative interactions with parents

- more emotionally supportive parents

- less detached parents

- more likely to report reading to their children daily

- fewer punitive discipline strategies

- more likely to participate in education and job training

Describe the benefits of Early Head Start