PSYCH 240 - UNIT 1 READINGS

Optimizing Learning in College

Article by Putnam Sungkhasettee and Roediger (2016) explaining why common study habits fail and how to study effectively using cognitive psychology principles

Core Purpose of the Article

Explain evidence

Target Audience

College high school medical school and law school students seeking effective learning

Key Student Problem

Working hard but struggling academically due to ineffective strategies

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate how well material is known

Forgetting Rate Underestimation

Failure to realize how quickly information is lost

Familiarity Illusion

Mistaking rereading familiarity for retrievability

Active Learning

Learning that requires effortful engagement with material

Retrieval Practice

Actively recalling information to strengthen memory

Spacing

Distributing study over time to improve long

Metacognition

Ability to accurately judge what one knows and does not know

Desirable Difficulties

Learning conditions that feel harder but improve retention

Time Management

Planning and organizing time to support learning

Syllabus Use

Using the syllabus as a roadmap for exams assignments and goals

Calendar Planning

Recording deadlines exams and activities in advance

Time

Management Systems

Early Book Access

Obtaining textbooks at the start of the semester

Pre

Highlighted Books Risk

Study Environment

Physical and mental context for studying

Distraction Avoidance

Eliminating social media email TV and multitasking

Multitasking Cost

Switching attention reduces comprehension and memory

Pre

Class Reading

Speed

Comprehension Tradeoff

Highlighting Ineffectiveness

Marking text does not reliably improve memory

Pretesting Effect

Answering questions before reading improves learning

Question Generation

Creating personal questions to promote deep processing

Read

Recite

Self

Testing

Lecture Attendance

Regular attendance supports spacing and understanding

In

Class Spacing Effect

Technology Avoidance in Class

Reducing laptop and internet use to improve focus

Handwritten Notes Advantage

Writing by hand promotes processing and recall

Laptop Note Disadvantage

Typing encourages verbatim transcription

Lecture Slides Before Class

Accessing slides early improves learning

Same

Day Review

After

Class Retrieval

Cramming

Massed last

Spaced Practice

Studying small amounts over many days

Rereading Limitation

Inefficient and weak compared to testing

Retrieval Practice Importance

Most effective strategy for durable learning

Flashcards

Tool for retrieval practice when used correctly

Flashcard Rules

Retrieve before flipping repeat items multiple times and elaborate

Group Study

Effective when focused on quizzing and teaching

Successive Relearning

Repeated retrieval until mastery across sessions

Mnemonics

Memory aids like acronyms and method of loci

Cumulative Exams

Tests covering all material requiring early spaced preparation

Sleep and Memory

Sleep consolidates learning and improves cognition

Exercise Benefit

Physical activity enhances attention and cognitive function

Central Message

Learning requires active engagement not passive exposure

Counterintuitive Learning

Effective strategies feel harder than ineffective ones

Final Takeaway

Use spacing retrieval active reading and focused attention

Making Things Hard on Yourself Chapter

Bjork and Bjork chapter on desirable difficulties

Central Learning Question

What makes learning effective even if it feels difficult

Learning Misjudgment

Learners lack accurate mental models of learning

Perceptual Fluency

Ease of processing mistaken for understanding

Learning vs Performance Distinction

Performance is short

Latent Learning

Learning without immediate performance improvement

Performance Without Learning

Short

Storage Strength

Degree of encoding and integration determining durability

Retrieval Strength

Current accessibility of information

Desirable Difficulties Definition

Conditions that hinder performance but enhance learning

Practice Variability

Varying conditions to promote flexible knowledge

Context Variation Evidence

Studying in different rooms improves recall

Spacing Effect

Distributed practice produces superior retention

Interleaving

Mixing topics during practice to improve transfer

Blocking

Practicing one topic repeatedly producing overconfidence

Metacognitive Illusion

Blocked practice inflates confidence without learning

Generation Effect

Generating answers improves memory more than reading

Testing Effect

Tests function as learning events not just assessments

Failed Retrieval Benefit

Even unsuccessful tests enhance later learning

Dialectical Cognition

Cognition advances through thesis antithesis synthesis

Theoretical Pluralism

No single theory fully explains cognition

Zeitgeist

Historical and intellectual climate shaping theories

Structuralism

School focused on elements of consciousness via introspection

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder emphasizing immediate conscious experience

Edward Titchener

Reduced consciousness to sensations images and affections

Functionalism

Focus on what the mind does and why

Pragmatism

Knowledge validated by practical usefulness

William James

Emphasized adaptive consciousness

John Dewey

Applied functionalism to education and learning by doing

Associationism

Learning through linking ideas by association

Ebbinghaus Memory Research

Experimental study of memory and rehearsal

Behaviorism

Psychology focused only on observable behavior

Watson

Rejected mental states emphasized stimulus

Skinner

Radical behaviorism explaining behavior through reinforcement

Gestalt Psychology

Emphasized holistic perception and insight

Cognitivism

Modern synthesis emphasizing mental processes

Ulric Neisser

Defined cognitive psychology

Visual Agnosia

Inability to recognize objects despite intact vision

Prosopagnosia

Face blindness

Dr P Case

Musician with visual agnosia described by Oliver Sacks

Feature

Based Processing

Holistic Processing Loss

Inability to perceive meaningful wholes

Music Compensation

Using music for identity orientation and action

Judgment Loss

Absence of intuitive personal relational understanding

Critique of Computational Models

Abstract feature

Final Insight

Durable cognition requires integration of perception emotion embodiment and judgmen