Cognitive Approach (SL)

Cognitive approach

Cognitive approach concerns itself with the structure and functions of the mind.

Who proposed "cognitive misers”?

Fiske and Taylor (1991)

What does it mean to be a cognitive miser?

We often make the choice not to actively process information because we want to save time and effort. In other words, we use mental shortcuts to make decisions because of three factors: knowledge, motivation, and economy. Using sayings like “I don’t know”, “I don’t care”, and “I don’t have time”.

Who proposed the Multi Store Model?

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971)

What does the MSM suggest?

It suggests that memory is “stored” in three locations: sensory store, short term memory, and long term memory.

Sensory Store

People detect many sensory stimuli during the day. These stimuli are captured by the sensory register. Memory is stored in this register for about 0.5 - 4 seconds.

What are the 5 registers for the 5 senses?

Echoic Register - sound

Iconic Register - Visual

Haptic Register - Touch

Gustatory Register - Taste

Olfactory - Smell

Short Term Store

The short term store receives information from the senses and record information for only a few moments. It allows you to hole information long enough to record what is necessary. Information is selected for further processing or discarded.

What is the storage capacity of the short term memory?

The storage of working memory is small: around 7 plus or minus 2 items. It can hold information for 15 - 20 seconds or 15 - 20 mins with rehearsal.

What did Miller (1966) find about organizing information in the short term memory?

Miller (1966) found that by chunking data, we are able to remember more information. Information can be chunked in working memory to increase capacity. Chunking is the organization of items into familiar or manageable units or chunks.

Long Term Store

The long term memory is a system that encodes, stores , and retrieves information. It has an unlimited capacity.

What factors influence encoding in the long term store?

Levels of processing done with an item

Timing of practice

How a person organizing information

A person’s reference to the self during learning

Distinctiveness of an item

Testing during learning

What evidence did Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) provide that supports the multi-store model?

The Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) model relied on hippocampus lesion studies, which showed that people with damaged hippocampus legions could create short term memories but not long term memories. This showed that short and long term memory are distinctly different cognitive processes.

What evidence did Bekhterev (in Milner, 2005) provide to support the multi store model?

Bekhterev showed that the medial temporal lobes have a role in memory formation. They demonstrated that the brain of a patient who had shown severe memory impairment displayed significant ‘softening in the regions of the uncus, hippocampus, and adjoining medial temporal cortex’.

What are the strengths of the multi-store model?

Many memory-related studies, such as Glanzer and Cunitz’s (1966) study relating to the primacy and recency effect and Scoville and Milner’s (1957) studies relating to memory formation, are consistent with the multi-store model.

What are the limitations of the multi store model in terms of what the model doesn’t account for?

The model does not account for how memories are stored based on their importance, nor does it account for the effect of emotion on memory. The model does not account for the type of information taken into memory. Some information seems to pass into the LTS more readily than other information. The model does not account for the process of forgetting; forgetting is seen as a by-product rather than an active process. The model does not account for the retrieval process of the information.

What are the limitations of the multi store model in terms of the details?

The multi store model describes rather than explains. It does not tell us why information is stored. It suggests that memory formation processes are grouped and distinct but the lesion studies have shown that memories are spread out through the brain. Memory formation processes are more complex than the model implies. Rehearsal alone is too simple to account for the transfer of information from the STS to the LTS. The model ignores factors such as efforts and the strategies that people may use when learning; elaborate rehearsal methods lead to better recall than simple rehearsal.

What is the levels of processing theory?

The levels of processing framework was presented by Craik and Lockhart (1972) as an alternative to the MSM. It says that stimulus information is processed at multiple levels simultaneously depending upon its characteristics. The “deeper” the processing, the more that will be remembered. Information that is being attended to receives more processing than other stimuli/events. We remember things that are meaningful to us because this requires more processing than meaningless stimuli. Processing of information at different levels is unconscious and automatic unless we attend to that level.

What is working memory?

Working memory is the small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks.

What is the working memory model?

Baddeley and Hitch (1979) expanded the short-term aspect of the MSM as the MSM was too simplistic. It states that the primary memory is split into 4 parts: central executive, phonological store, Visio-sketch pad, and episodic register.

What is the central executive?

The central executive replaces the “sensory store”. It is the most important component of the working memory model and is located in the frontal lobe (processes higher order functions). The central executive co-manages retrieval, attention, and inhibition. The central executive is an attention control system that monitors and coordinates the operations of the other subordinate components, which are called slave systems.

What is the most important job of the central executive and how does it work?

The most important job of the central executive is attention control and it happens in 2 ways. The automatic level is based on habits that rely on schemas in long-term memory and controlled more or less automatically by stimuli from the environment. The supervisory activating system (SAS) deals with planning and decision making. It creates new strategies when the old ones are no longer sufficient. It is also active in emergency situations.

What is the phonological loop?

Phonological loop deals with auditory information and language - both written and spoken. It has a limited capacity. Baddeley (1986) further subdivided it into the phonological store (hold hear words) and the articulately loop process (hold words heard/seen and silently repeated like an inner voice). It is associated with the left temporal lobe.

What is articulately suppression?

Articulately suppression is the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember.

What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

Visual and/or spatial information is stored in the visuospatial sketchpad and it has limited capacity. Visual cache is a part of the visuospatial sketchpad which stores information about form/shape and colour. The inner scribe stores information about the physical relationship of items and processes spatial and movement information. It is associated with the occipital lobe.

What is the episodic buffer?

The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing, such as the memory of a story, event or a movie scene. It is associated with the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the hippocampus.

What are some strengths of the working memory model?

The model is supported by considerable experimental evidence. The brain scans have shown that a different area of the brain activates when carrying out verbal tasks than when carrying out visual tasks. This supports the idea that there are different parts of memory for visual and verbal tasks. Case studies of patients with brain damage supports the theory that there is more than one STM store. This model helps to understand why we ar able to multitask in some situations and not in others.

What are some limitations of the working memory model?

The role of the central executive is unclear although Baddeley and Hitch said it was the most important part of the model. It is unclear how the various components of the model interact. The model really only explains Short term memory and so tells us very little about the process involved in long term memory. This model does not explain memory distortion or the role of emotion in memory formation.

What are the similarities between the multistore memory model and the working memory model?

• rehearsal is necessary for transfer from STM to LTM

• neither explains memory distortion

• Neither explains the role of emotion

• Neither explains the role of emotion

• Both agree that STM is limited in capacity and duration

What are the differences between the multi store model and the working memory model?

• the WMM argues that the STM is not just one store, but a number of different stores

• the WMM focuses only on the STM

• the WMM explains how we can multitask in some cases

• the WMM argues that different modalities are processed differently

How did Cohen and Squire (1980) expend on the MSM?

Cohen and Squire (1980) expended on the SM by drawing a distinction between declarative knowledge and non-declarative knowledge. There are different types of memory that are processed and stored in different parts of the brain.

What is explicit/declarative memory?

Declarative/explicit memory is a memory system that is controlled consciously, intentionally, and flexibly. It involves some effort and intention, and we can employ memory strategies such as mnemonics to recall information.

What are the 2 types of memory involved in declarative memory?

There is episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is our ability to replay previous experiences/events in our mind. Semantic memory refers to a portion of long term memory the processes ideas, facts and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience… information from the world.

What is reconstructive memory?

It is based on the idea that memories are not saved as complete, coherent wholes. We encode memories based on our current schemas and these schemas influence the way in which we retrieve, through construction, our memories. Every time we retrieve a memory, we can change the memory based on our current schema. Retrieval of our memory is influenced by our perception, our beliefs, past experience, cultural factors and the context in which we are recalling the information.

What is efforts after meaning?

Bartlett argued that we try to make sense of the past by adding our interpretations of events and deducing what most likely happened. He argued that memory is an imaginative reconstruction of experience.

What is an engram?

An engram is the biological presentation of a memory. fMRIs show that engrams are stored/encoded in different parts of the brain.

What is a false memory?

A false memory occurs when a person “remembers” something that simply did not happen, although they believe it did.

What is confabulation?

Confabulation is an error of memory reconstruction because it involves fabricated or distorted narratives, especially about the individual. People who confabulate are not deliberately or consciously dishonest. Inaccurate memories can be subtle or grandiose and the individuals are usually very confident about their memories.

How can schema processing be a source of errors in memory?

Schema processing can also be a source of errors in memory both in the construction of memories and their retrieval. Schemas are simplified mental representations.

What is a flashbulb memory?

Brown and Kulik (1977) defined flashbulb memory as : a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened.

What is the special-mechanism hypothesis?

The special-mechanism hypothesis argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism that, when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise, creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances surrounding the experience. This implies that flashbulb memories have different characteristics than “ordinary memories”. They also argued that the memories are resistant to forgetting.

What features do flashbulb memories include?

Flashbulb memories include:

• place - the place where the news was heard

• Informant - the person who supplied the information

• On-going event - what they were doing at the time of hearing the news

• Own affect - their emotional state upon receiving the news

• Affect of others - their emotional state of others

• Aftermath - the consequences of the event for the individual

What are the 2 factors that lead to the creation of flashbulb memories?

1. A high level of surprise

2. High levels of emotion

The surprise and emotion lead to increase rehearsal of the memory both overtly (publicly) and covertly (internally). This rehearsal is what strengthens the memory.

What is schema?

Schema is a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing perceived new information. They are based on past experience and we use schemas to organize current t knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. Schemas are culturally specific but may vary even within a single culture because of such factors as class.

How does schema work?

As active processors of information, humans integrate new information with existing stored information. Schema theory therefore predicts that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing.

Who proposed the schema theory?

The concept of schema was first used by Jean Piaget in 1926.  Bartlett and Vygotsky are also notable contributors to the theory.Piaget suggested that children learn using existing schemas that are either accommodated or assimilated.

What is “accommodation” in terms of schema?

Accommodation is when an existing schema is replaced.

What is “assimilation” in relation to schema?

Assimilation is when you add information to your schema.

What are the characteristics of schema?

Characteristics:

• Long lasting

• Difficult to change (but not impossible)

What are the function of schema?

Functions:

• Help us to comprehend new information

• Help us to make sense of the complex world of information

• Schema includes generalizations about situations, people and places. Helps us to save cognitive energy.

What are the types of schemata?

• Event Schema: Also known as cognitive scripts. They describe behavioral and event  sequences. They provide the ability for us to predict and plan for the future. 

• Self-Schema: The framework for how we perceive ourselves. Who believe we are as individuals. 

• Object Schema: Helps us understand the characteristics of objects. What objects should “do”, and what we can “do” with them. 

• Role Schema: How a person should behave based on their role (roles can change based on the social environment).

What are the 5 processes incorporated into all schema theories?

• Selection – the process that selects information for storing and representing.

• Abstraction – the process that stores an event’s meaning.

• Interpretation – the process through which background knowledge is used to help

comprehension.

• Integration – the process by which a mental representation is formed.

• Reconstruction – the process that uses details from the event and general

knowledge to refabricate the event.

What are stereotypes?

Stereotyping is an example of a schema based on a mental representation of a group

of people. Stereotypes are simplified generalizations about identifiable groups.

What are some strengths of schema theory?

Schema theory helps to understand stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, and

inaccurate or unreliable memory.

What are some limitations of schema theory?

Schemas have not been universally defined and so schema theory is based on a fundamental concept, the meaning of which has not been universally agreed upon by researchers.

Schema theory describes but does not explain how and why schemas are formed. The theory does not explain why information that does not match a person’s schemas can be forgotten or distorted to match schemas.

What are cognitive biases?

Cognitive bias: systematic errors in thinking that occurs when people are processing and interpreting information, due to subjective perception of reality. These errors affects the decisions and judgments that they make.
Biases are unconscious and automatic processes designed to make decision-making quicker and more efficient.

What can biases be caused by?

Cognitive biases can be caused by many things, such as heuristics, social pressures, and emotions.

What is a heuristic?

A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows an individual to make a decision, pass judgment, or solve a problem quickly and with minimal mental effort.

What are verbal protocols?

Verbal protocols are interviews that are used by cognitive psychologists with the goal of trying to make internal thought processes public rather than private events.Involves asking the participant to think aloud as they carry out a task or experience something. Developed by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon to explore human problem-solving strategies.

What are the two types of decision making?

• Rational = logical, careful, controlled (usually take time and effort)

• Intuitive = automatic, impulsive, emotion driven

What is system 1 thinking?

System #1 Thinking

• Focuses on what it sees and ignores absent evidence

• Bases decisions on past experiences and knowledge – that is already established schema

• It is quick, but prone to error

• Generates impressions

• Takes shortcuts, called heuristics

• Operates automatically

What is system 2 thinking?

System #2 Thinking

• Requires concentration and effort

• Works with abstract concepts

• Works through logic

• Uses conscious reasoning

• More reliable – but slow

So why do we tend to use system 1 thinking?

• We are cognitive misers

• Focus is difficult – ego depletion

• Too many other thing to think about – cognitive overload

These are all part of the Law of least effort: if there are several ways of achieving  the same goal, people will choose the least demanding course of action.

What is prospect theory?

Prospect Theory: people use heuristics in order to determine the level of risk when the situation is unclear.  The goal is to avoid loss - a position called loss aversion.

What is representative heuristic?

when people mistake representativeness with likelihood or probability.

What is availability heuristic?

The availability heuristic is the error of mistaking readily available examples as the typical sample.

What is confirmation bias?

Confirmation bias is a broad term to describe what occurs when people select or interpret information to confirm their existing knowledge, including the tendency to interpret ambiguous information so that it supports their existing ideas or beliefs. Confirmation biases contribute to the formation and strengthening of schemas and stereotypes.

What is illusory correlation?

The illusory correlation describes the conclusion people reach when they decide that events occurring at the same time are related, sometimes going as far as stating that one event causes the other.