Comprehensive Psychology: Classical & Operant Conditioning, Cognitive Theories, and Key Experiments

Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.

Relatively Permanent

When people learn, part of their brain physically changes to record what they've learned (memory).

Maturation

Changes due to biology, not experience (e.g., walking).

Cognitive-behavioral paradigm

Views behavior as a product of learning.

Wilhelm Wundt

Scientific study of psychological phenomena.

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered classical conditioning through work on digestion in dogs.

John B. Watson

Father of behaviorism; focused on observable stimuli and responses.

B.F. Skinner

Developed operant conditioning (learning through consequences).

Traditional Behaviorism

Focuses on directly observable events—stimuli and responses.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to make an involuntary response to a new stimulus by pairing it with a natural one.

Reflex

An unlearned, involuntary response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Naturally occurring stimulus that triggers an involuntary response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Involuntary, unlearned response to the UCS.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Originally neutral, becomes learned through pairing with UCS.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned, reflex-like response to a conditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that elicits no response until paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Example of Classical Conditioning

CS = ice cream truck sound → CR = salivation.

John Watson's Little Albert Experiment

Taught a baby to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

Watson's Conclusion

Environment shapes behavior; adults can mold children's behavior through stimulus-response associations.

Operant Conditioning

Type of learning involving voluntary behavior influenced by consequences.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something pleasant to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior.

Extinction (operant conditioning)

When reinforcement stops, behavior gradually decreases or stops.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, and understanding.

Key Cognitive Learning Theorists

Edward Tolman, Wolfgang Köhler, and Martin Seligman.

Edward Tolman

Studied cognitive maps and latent learning using maze-running rats.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement but is demonstrated when needed.

Wolfgang Köhler

Demonstrated that animals can learn through insight (chimpanzee problem-solving).

Insight

The sudden realization of a solution ("Aha!" moment).

Insight Learning

Problem-solving that happens through understanding relationships rather than trial and error.

Martin Seligman

Discovered learned helplessness in dogs exposed to unavoidable shocks.

Learned Helplessness

Tendency to stop trying to escape due to repeated past failures; belief that there's no control.

Positive Psychology

Field developed by Seligman focusing on human strengths and well-being.

Albert Bandura

Developed social-cognitive (observational) learning theory.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others (modeling).

Learning/Performance Distinction

Learning can occur without immediate performance of the behavior.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, helpful, and constructive behavior.

Bandura's Findings

Children imitate what they observe—aggression or kindness.

4 Elements of Observational Learning

Attention, Memory, Imitation, Desire.

Attention

You must pay attention to the model.

Memory

You must remember what was observed.

Imitation

You must be capable of reproducing the behavior.

Desire

You must want or be motivated to perform the behavior.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to make an involuntary response to a new stimulus by pairing it with a natural one.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A naturally occurring stimulus that automatically triggers a response (no learning needed). Example: Food makes a dog salivate.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, involuntary reaction to the unconditioned stimulus. Example: Dog's salivation to food.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response before conditioning. Example: The sound of a bell before training.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A once-neutral stimulus that becomes capable of triggering a learned response after being paired with the UCS. Example: Bell sound after repeated pairings with food.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus. Example: Dog salivating to the sound of the bell.

Key Process in Classical Conditioning

Repeated association between the NS and the UCS until the NS becomes a CS.

Example of Classical Conditioning in Humans

Little Albert learning to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud noise.

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The weakening of the conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding to stimuli that are similar to the original CS. Example: Little Albert feared all white furry objects.

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to respond only to a specific stimulus, not similar ones.