All AP Psych key Terms

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Nature

Refers to the genetic or hereditary influences on behavior, personality, and cognitive abilities. It encompasses the biological predispositions that individuals are born with.

Evolutionary Perspective

A framework in psychology that examines how evolutionary processes, such as natural selection, have shaped human behavior, thought, and emotion.

Natural Selection

A process in evolutionary biology where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully.

Behavior Genetics

A field of study that explores the relationship between genetics and behavior.

Mutations

Changes in the DNA sequence that can result in new traits or characteristics.

Environment

The sum of all external factors influencing an individual's development and behavior, including social, cultural, and physical surroundings.

Heredity

The transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to offspring. It plays a key role in determining various traits and behaviors.

Genes

Units of heredity made up of DNA that carry the instructions for making proteins, which influence an organism's development, functioning, and behavior.

Genome

The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism. It contains all the information needed for growth, development, and functioning.

Nuture

Refers to the environmental influences on an individual’s development, including upbringing, culture, education, and experiences.

Eugenics

A controversial social philosophy aimed at improving the genetic quality of a population, often through selective breeding or sterilization of individuals deemed "unfit."

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

Twins that originate from a single fertilized egg that splits into two embryos.

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

Twins that develop from two separate fertilized eggs.

Interaction

how genetic and environmental factors influence each other to shape behavior and traits.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence.

Nervous System

A complex network of cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses throughout the body. It coordinates actions and responses by processing sensory information and sending signals to muscles and glands.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. It processes information and is responsible for higher functions such as thought, emotion, and voluntary movement.

Nerves

Bundles of fibers composed of axons that transmit signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.

Reflex

An automatic and rapid response to a stimulus that does not involve conscious thought

Autonomic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. It operates without conscious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses during stressful situations. It increases heart rate, dilates airways, and inhibits digestion, among other effects.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord. It connects the CNS to the limbs and organs, facilitating communication between the brain and the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

A component of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information to the CNS. It is responsible for conscious control over body movements.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that promotes "rest and digest" functions. It conserves energy by slowing the heart rate, increasing intestinal activity, and facilitating relaxation.

Neurons

Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses throughout the nervous system. They are the basic building blocks of the nervous system, responsible for processing and conveying information.

Cell Body

The central part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and organelles. It is responsible for maintaining the cell's health and integrating incoming signals from the dendrites.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons. They play a crucial role in transmitting information toward the cell body.

Axon

A long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty substance that coats the axons of many neurons, forming an insulating layer.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons, where communication occurs.

Glial Cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that provide structural support, protection, and nourishment to neurons.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway that controls a reflex action.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that transmit sensory information from receptors (e.g., in the skin, eyes, ears) to the central nervous system

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands, facilitating movement and response.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.

Action Potential

A rapid, temporary change in the electrical charge of a neuron that occurs when it is stimulated. This event is essential for the transmission of nerve impulses along the axon.

All-or-Nothing Principle

A principle stating that a neuron either fires an action potential fully or not at all. If the stimulus reaches a certain threshold, the neuron will fire; if it doesn't, there is no firing.

Depolarization

The process during an action potential where the membrane potential of a neuron becomes more positive. This occurs when sodium ions enter the neuron, moving it away from its resting potential.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after they have transmitted a signal across a synapse.

Multiple Sclerosis

A chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, characterized by the destruction of myelin sheaths around nerve fibers. This disrupts communication between the brain and the rest of the body.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons at synapses.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter is involved in reward, motivation, and motor control. It plays a key role in the brain's pleasure and reward pathways and is implicated in conditions such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter and hormone that is involved in the body's "fight or flight" response. It plays a role in attention, focus, and regulating mood.

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. It reduces neuronal excitability and helps regulate anxiety, muscle tone, and sleep.

Substance P

A neuropeptide involved in the transmission of pain signals. It plays a role in the inflammatory response and is associated with the perception of pain.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target organs or tissues, regulating various physiological processes.

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger. It signals the brain to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure.

Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles. Its levels rise in response to darkness, promoting sleep.

Refractory Period

The period after an action potential during which a neuron is less responsive to stimuli and cannot fire again until it returns to its resting potential.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge difference across the neuron's membrane when it is not actively firing.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron. If the stimulus reaches this level, an action potential will occur.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that affects communication between nerves and muscles, leading to muscle weakness. It occurs when antibodies block or destroy receptors for acetylcholine.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron.

Seratonin

A neurotransmitter that contributes to mood regulation, appetite, sleep, and other functions. Imbalances in serotonin levels are linked to conditions like depression and anxiety.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in cognitive functions such as learning and memory

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers. They are released in response to stress or pain and promote feelings of pleasure and well-being.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation, attention, learning, and memory. It plays a critical role in both the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Endocrine System

A network of glands that produce and release hormones into the bloodstream, regulating various bodily functions such as growth, metabolism, and mood.

Adrenaline

A hormone and neurotransmitter released during the "fight or flight" response. It increases heart rate, blood flow, and energy availability, preparing the body for rapid action.

Ghrelin

A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite. It plays a key role in regulating energy balance and body weight.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in social bonding, reproduction, and childbirth. Often referred to as the "love hormone," it plays a role in trust and emotional connections.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter perception, mood, consciousness, or behavior by affecting the brain's neurotransmitter systems. They can be legal (e.g., alcohol) or illegal (e.g., heroin).

Substance Use Disorder

A medical condition characterized by an individual's compulsive use of a substance despite harmful consequences. It can involve tolerance, withdrawal, and significant impairment in daily functioning.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of neurotransmitters at their receptors. Antagonists can reduce or negate the effects of other drugs or neurotransmitters.

Stimulants

A class of psychoactive drugs that increase alertness, energy, and activity levels by enhancing the effects of certain neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine and norepinephrine.

Caffeine

A widely used stimulant found in coffee, tea, and various energy drinks. It promotes alertness and can enhance cognitive performance but may also lead to dependence in some individuals.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant derived from the coca plant. It produces intense euphoria, increased energy, and alertness, but it is highly addictive and can lead to severe health issues.

Methamphetamines

A highly addictive stimulant that affects the central nervous system. It can increase energy, alertness, and euphoria, but it also poses significant health risks, including addiction and neurological damage.

Ecstacy

A synthetic drug that acts as both a stimulant and a hallucinogen. It enhances sensory perception and emotional connection but can have dangerous side effects, including dehydration and hyperthermia.

Opiods

A class of drugs that includes both legal prescription pain relievers (e.g., morphine, oxycodone) and illegal drugs (e.g., heroin). They are effective for pain relief but have a high potential for addiction and overdose.

Heroin

An illegal opioid derived from morphine, known for its potent euphoric effects. It is highly addictive and poses serious health risks, including the potential for overdose.

Addiction

A chronic condition characterized by compulsive drug-seeking behavior and use despite harmful consequences. It often involves physical dependence, psychological dependence, or both.

Agonist

A substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response.

Reuptake Inhibitor

A type of drug that prevents the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the presynaptic neuron, increasing their availability in the synaptic cleft.

Depressants

A class of psychoactive drugs that slow down the central nervous system, leading to decreased alertness and relaxation. They can also reduce anxiety and induce sleep.

Barbiturates

A type of depressant medication that was commonly used for anxiety and sleep disorders. They can be addictive and pose a risk of overdose, especially when mixed with other substances.

Alcohol

A depressant that affects the central nervous system, leading to relaxation, reduced inhibition, and impaired coordination. It can lead to dependence and various health problems when misused.

Hallucinogens

A class of psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, often inducing visual or auditory hallucinations. Examples include LSD and psilocybin mushrooms.

Near-Death Experience

A profound psychological event that may occur during life-threatening situations, often characterized by feelings of peace, detachment from the body, and a sense of moving toward a light.

Marijuana

A psychoactive drug derived from the Cannabis plant, known for its relaxing effects and alteration of sensory perception. It can have both therapeutic benefits and potential for misuse.

LSD

A powerful hallucinogen that alters perception, mood, and thought processes. It can cause vivid visual and auditory hallucinations and significant changes in consciousness.

Tolerance

A condition in which an individual requires increasingly larger doses of a substance to achieve the same effects

Withdrawl

A group of symptoms that occur when an individual reduces or stops using a substance they are dependent on.

Biological Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies the relationship between biological processes and behavior. It examines how genetics, brain structures, and neurotransmitters influence thoughts, emotions, and actions.

Biopsychosocial Approach

A holistic perspective that considers biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness.

Levels of Analysis

Different perspectives from which to examine a phenomenon in psychology.

Brain Plasticity

The ability of the brain to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This adaptability allows the brain to recover from injury and learn new skills.

EEG

A technique used to measure electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. It is commonly used to diagnose conditions like epilepsy and sleep disorders.

MEG

A non-invasive imaging technique that measures the magnetic fields produced by neuronal activity in the brain. It provides high temporal resolution for studying brain function.

MRI

A medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain's structures. It is valuable for diagnosing brain injuries and diseases.

CT-Scan

An imaging method that combines X-ray images taken from different angles to create cross-sectional images of the brain. It is commonly used in emergency situations to detect bleeding or tumors.

PET

An imaging technique that measures metabolic activity in the brain by detecting radioactive tracers injected into the bloodstream. It helps visualize brain function and activity levels.

fMRI

An imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. It provides insights into brain function and is often used in research on cognition and behavior.

Lesions

Areas of damage or injury in the brain, often studied to understand the effects of specific brain regions on behavior and cognitive functions. They can occur due to injury, disease, or surgical intervention.

Brain Stem

The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord. It regulates essential functions such as heart rate, breathing, and sleep-wake cycles.

Hindbrain

The lower part of the brain that includes structures such as the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. It is responsible for basic life-sustaining functions and coordination of movement.

Midbrain

A small region of the brain located above the hindbrain, involved in sensory processing, motor control, and regulating arousal and alertness.

Forebrain

The largest part of the brain, encompassing structures such as the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebral cortex. It is involved in complex behaviors, emotions, and higher cognitive functions.