The news and social media 7

Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (D-NY)

better known today as AOC, was born in 1989 to Puerto Rican parents in the Bronx, New York. As a child, her entire extended family worked together to help her parents buy a small house in Westchester County to have access to better public schools.

mass media

News sources, including newspapers, television, radio, and the Internet, whose purpose is to provide a large audience with information about the nation and the world. Mass media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion and fostering communication.

news media

Subset of the mass media that provides the news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists.

The news media (also called the press) are a subset of the mass media that have traditionally provided the

news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists. With all the new technologies of the twenty-first century, however, the news media are changing; now the average citizen is able to participate in politics through Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, Snapchat, TikTok, or Reddit.

news media

Subset of the mass media that provides the news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists. With the rise of digital platforms, the news media also includes online sources and social media, allowing for wider public engagement.

One aspect of the mass media today is speedy communication. What used to take days, weeks, and sometimes months, now takes seconds. For example, it took up to four days for

some Americans to learn about the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln (1861–65) in April 1865. But no longer: Twitter feeds, for instance, bring information nearly as quickly as it happens.

watchdog

Role of the press in monitoring government actions.

Journalists, simply put, inform. Coverage of COVID-19 in 2020, for example, might include stories on number of cases, deaths, impact on the health care system, the effects on the

economy, closing of schools, or whether people were following safe practices when out in public. Coverage of a political campaign, on the other hand, might include information about candidates’ previous experience, their personal temperaments, or their views on important issues.

If there is a crisis in the economy, journalists provide information about the problem, explain the solutions being proposed, and indicate what can be expected in the

future regarding economic recovery.

Because of the importance of the press, politicians often court journalists, as they seek favorable coverage. They want

reporters to share their accomplishments with voters. Yet journalists and politicians are usually in an adversarial relationship because journalists want to report new stories on topics of interest to the public.

When the media inform, they also interpret the news. Just giving one story front-page coverage and relegating another to

an inside page involves interpreting what is more and less important. The role of interpretation has taken on even greater significance in the past few decades. In 1960, for example, journalists covered presidential campaigns in a very descriptive fashion

The First Amendment to the Constitution states that “Congress shall make no law … abridging the freedom … of the press.” This

protection is not unlimited, however. During times of war (or threat of war), national security concerns may require that the press not publish a story.

The government, however, is often too eager to stop publication of controversial stories, whereas the press may be too

willing to report on controversial stories that will boost sales. This conflict plays out in debates over prior restraint—government’s ability to restrict the publication of sensitive material

Answers to these difficult questions have been shaped by Supreme Court decisions. In the early 1930s, for example, the state of Minnesota stopped a small newspaper from

publishing controversial claims about the mayor of Minneapolis and convicted the publisher, Jay Near, under state libel laws. Near appealed the conviction all the way to the Supreme Court.

In Near v. Minnesota (1931), the Court ruled that only in exceptionally rare cases could the government stop the

printing of a story, overturning Near’s conviction and invalidating the Minnesota law that led to his conviction.

libel

Publishing false and damaging statements about another person.

actual malice

Supreme Court test for libel of a public figure, in which the plaintiff must prove that the publisher knew the material was false or acted with reckless disregard of whether it was true or false.

During the Vietnam War, the New York Times secured a copy of a top-secret Department of

Defense analysis detailing U.S. involvement in Vietnam and began publishing it, believing that the information, some of which contradicted official statements, was essential to public understanding of government policy. Citing national security, the Nixon Administration secured a court injunction forcing the Times to cease publication, but the newspaper appealed, and the case quickly went to the Supreme Court.

New York Times v. Sullivan

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the standard of "actual malice" for press reports about public officials, affirming the importance of free speech. It involved a civil lawsuit for libel initiated by an Alabama public official against the New York Times, setting a precedent for protecting press freedom against unwarranted lawsuits.

While journalists are protected by the Pentagon Papers decision, a new brand of

“journalists” has arisen in social media. For example, a federal case about six years ago held that bloggers are afforded the same protections as journalists working for established news outlets. This case expanded First Amendment protections beyond those in previous rulings to include persons other than “institutional media defendants.”

In general, the courts have tended to give the edge to the press in the belief that, in the long run, it is better to protect press freedoms so that

the press can, in turn, help inform the public, which can then hold elected officials accountable. Consistent with this general predisposition, there are very few laws that constrain the print media, such as newspapers and magazines. The electronic media, however, are more heavily regulated by government.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC),

now a powerful independent agency that regulates all forms of electronic media, including radio, broadcast television, cable television, cell phones, and even wireless networks. Anyone can start a newspaper, but starting a radio station requires a license from the FCC.

The Telecommunications Act

of 1996 reformed telecommunications regulations in the United States, promoting competition and reducing restrictions on media ownership.

censorship

The suppression of words, images, or ideas that are considered “offensive” or “dangerous” by a government or private group. Protection from being censored is guaranteed by the First Amendment

In the early colonial period, newspapers were not widely available, and there were few printing presses. Public Occurrences, which began

publication in Boston in 1690, had only a few pages and was more a pamphlet than a newspaper. Circulation was small, usually fewer than two thousand copies

Newspaper publication was more of a hobby for publishers than anything else, and the notion that the press had the right to

criticize government was not widely accepted. In fact, colonial governments feared that harsh criticism would incite the public and create instability, so publishers who attacked those in power could be thrown into jail and have their printing presses confiscated.

seditious libel

Conduct or language that incites rebellion against the authority of a state

What was the first American publication resembling a newspaper?

Public Occurrences, published in Boston in 1690.

Why were early colonial newspapers not widely available?

Few printing presses existed, and circulation was small—usually fewer than two thousand copies.

Few printing presses existed, and circulation was small—usually fewer than two thousand copies.

they could be jailed and have their printing presses confiscated.

Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (D-NY)

better known today as AOC, was born in 1989 to Puerto Rican parents in the Bronx, New York. As a child, her entire extended family worked together to help her parents buy a small house in Westchester County to have access to better public schools.

**mass media**

News sources, including newspapers, television, radio, and the Internet, whose purpose is to provide a large audience with information about the nation and the world. Mass media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion and fostering communication.

**news media**

Subset of the mass media that provides the news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists.

The **news media** (also called the press) are a subset of the mass media that have traditionally provided the

news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists. With all the new technologies of the twenty-first century, however, the news media are changing; now the average citizen is able to participate in politics through Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, Snapchat, TikTok, or Reddit.

**news media**

Subset of the mass media that provides the news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists. With the rise of digital platforms, the news media also includes online sources and social media, allowing for wider public engagement.

One aspect of the mass media today is speedy communication. What used to take days, weeks, and sometimes months, now takes seconds. For example, it took up to four days for

some Americans to learn about the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln (1861–65) in April 1865. But no longer: Twitter feeds, for instance, bring information nearly as quickly as it happens.

**watchdog**

Role of the press in monitoring government actions.

Journalists, simply put, inform. Coverage of COVID-19 in 2020, for example, might include stories on number of cases, deaths, impact on the health care system, the effects on the

economy, closing of schools, or whether people were following safe practices when out in public. Coverage of a political campaign, on the other hand, might include information about candidates’ previous experience, their personal temperaments, or their views on important issues.

If there is a crisis in the economy, journalists provide information about the problem, explain the solutions being proposed, and indicate what can be expected in the

future regarding economic recovery.

Because of the importance of the press, politicians often court journalists, as they seek favorable coverage. They want

reporters to share their accomplishments with voters. Yet journalists and politicians are usually in an adversarial relationship because journalists want to report new stories on topics of interest to the public.

When the media inform, they also interpret the news. Just giving one story front-page coverage and relegating another to

an inside page involves interpreting what is more and less important. The role of interpretation has taken on even greater significance in the past few decades. In 1960, for example, journalists covered presidential campaigns in a very descriptive fashion

The First Amendment to the Constitution states that “Congress shall make no law … abridging the freedom … of the press.” This

protection is not unlimited, however. During times of war (or threat of war), national security concerns may require that the press not publish a story.

The government, however, is often too eager to stop publication of controversial stories, whereas the press may be too

willing to report on controversial stories that will boost sales. This conflict plays out in debates over prior restraint—government’s ability to restrict the publication of sensitive material

Answers to these difficult questions have been shaped by Supreme Court decisions. In the early 1930s, for example, the state of Minnesota stopped a small newspaper from

publishing controversial claims about the mayor of Minneapolis and convicted the publisher, Jay Near, under state libel laws. Near appealed the conviction all the way to the Supreme Court.

In *Near v. Minnesota* (1931), the Court ruled that only in exceptionally rare cases could the government stop the

printing of a story, overturning Near’s conviction and invalidating the Minnesota law that led to his conviction.

**libel**

Publishing false and damaging statements about another person.

**actual malice**

Supreme Court test for libel of a public figure, in which the plaintiff must prove that the publisher knew the material was false or acted with reckless disregard of whether it was true or false.

During the Vietnam War, the *New York Times* secured a copy of a top-secret Department of

Defense analysis detailing U.S. involvement in Vietnam and began publishing it, believing that the information, some of which contradicted official statements, was essential to public understanding of government policy. Citing national security, the Nixon Administration secured a court injunction forcing the *Times* to cease publication, but the newspaper appealed, and the case quickly went to the Supreme Court.

New York Times v. Sullivan

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the standard of "actual malice" for press reports about public officials, affirming the importance of free speech. It involved a civil lawsuit for libel initiated by an Alabama public official against the New York Times, setting a precedent for protecting press freedom against unwarranted lawsuits.

While journalists are protected by the *Pentagon Papers* decision, a new brand of

“journalists” has arisen in social media. For example, a federal case about six years ago held that bloggers are afforded the same protections as journalists working for established news outlets. This case expanded First Amendment protections beyond those in previous rulings to include persons other than “institutional media defendants.”

In general, the courts have tended to give the edge to the press in the belief that, in the long run, it is better to protect press freedoms so that

the press can, in turn, help inform the public, which can then hold elected officials accountable. Consistent with this general predisposition, there are very few laws that constrain the print media, such as newspapers and magazines. The electronic media, however, are more heavily regulated by government.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC),

now a powerful independent agency that regulates all forms of electronic media, including radio, broadcast television, cable television, cell phones, and even wireless networks. Anyone can start a newspaper, but starting a radio station requires a license from the FCC.

The Telecommunications Act

of 1996 reformed telecommunications regulations in the United States, promoting competition and reducing restrictions on media ownership.

**censorship**

The suppression of words, images, or ideas that are considered “offensive” or “dangerous” by a government or private group. Protection from being censored is guaranteed by the First Amendment

In the early colonial period, newspapers were not widely available, and there were few printing presses. *Public Occurrences*, which began

publication in Boston in 1690, had only a few pages and was more a pamphlet than a newspaper. Circulation was small, usually fewer than two thousand copies

Newspaper publication was more of a hobby for publishers than anything else, and the notion that the press had the right to

criticize government was not widely accepted. In fact, colonial governments feared that harsh criticism would incite the public and create instability, so publishers who attacked those in power could be thrown into jail and have their printing presses confiscated.

**seditious libel**

Conduct or language that incites rebellion against the authority of a state

What was the first American publication resembling a newspaper?

Public Occurrences, published in Boston in 1690.

Why were early colonial newspapers not widely available?

Few printing presses existed, and circulation was small—usually fewer than two thousand copies.

Few printing presses existed, and circulation was small—usually fewer than two thousand copies.

they could be jailed and have their printing presses confiscated.

What legal defense did Zenger’s lawyer Andrew Hamilton use?

He admitted Zenger’s guilt but argued that true statements should not be punishable.

Why is the Zenger trial significant?

It established the idea that the press has a right to criticize government—an early victory for freedom of the press.

What does the FCC regulate?

The content and ownership of radio, television, the Internet, and electronic media.

What precedent was set by FCC v. Pacifica Foundation (1978)?

The FCC can fine media outlets for broadcasting obscene or indecent content under certain conditions.

What was the George Carlin “Filthy Words” case about?

A radio station aired Carlin’s monologue with explicit language, leading to an FCC complaint and the Pacifica Supreme Court case.

What factors can the FCC consider when deciding if a sanction is justified?

Audience type, time of broadcast, and method of transmission.

What was the issue in FCC v. Fox Television Stations (2009)?

Whether the FCC’s new policy on “fleeting expletives” was reasonable and justifiable.

How do networks handle live broadcasts to avoid FCC fines?

They use a five-second delay and “bleep” offensive words.

Why are cable TV outlets not under FCC broadcast restrictions?

They serve paying subscribers who can choose what content to view.

What did the Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 attempt to do?

Ban “indecent” or “patently offensive” material on the Internet.

Which part of the CDA still stands today?

Section 230, which protects websites from liability for user-generated content.

What is the importance of Section 230 of the CDA?

It protects freedom of expression and innovation online by shielding platforms like YouTube and Facebook from user liability.

What was the Child Online Protection Act (COPA)?

A 1998 law that restricted online content “harmful to minors,” later struck down by the courts.

What does the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) require?

Parental consent for collecting data from children under 13 and visible privacy policies on websites.

Which government agency regulates Internet commerce and protects consumers?

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC).

What does the FTC do for Internet users?

Provides guidance on online safety, privacy, and reporting fraud.

What contribution did Benjamin Franklin make to journalism?

His Philadelphia Gazette set the standard for engaging, informative news and defended objectivity in journalism.

What was Franklin’s “An Apology for Printers” (1731) about?

A defense of objectivity and free expression in journalism.

thomas paine and common sense

A political pamphlet advocating for American independence from Britain, emphasizing reason and republicanism.

Federalist Papers

Series of essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay arguing for the ratification of the Constitution; today a leading source for understanding the Constitution.

yellow journalism

Style of journalism in the late-nineteenth century characterized by sensationalism intended to capture readers’ attention and increase circulation.

muckraking

Journalistic practice of investigative reporting that seeks to uncover corruption and wrongdoing.

Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (D-NY)

better known today as AOC, was born in 1989 to Puerto Rican parents in the Bronx, New York. As a child, her entire extended family worked together to help her parents buy a small house in Westchester County to have access to better public schools.

**mass media**

News sources, including newspapers, television, radio, and the Internet, whose purpose is to provide a large audience with information about the nation and the world. Mass media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion and fostering communication.

The **news media** (also called the press) are a subset of the mass media that have traditionally provided the

news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists. With all the new technologies of the twenty-first century, however, the news media are changing; now the average citizen is able to participate in politics through Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, Snapchat, TikTok, or Reddit.

One aspect of the mass media today is speedy communication. What used to take days, weeks, and sometimes months, now takes seconds. For example, it took up to four days for

some Americans to learn about the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln (1861–65) in April 1865. But no longer: Twitter feeds, for instance, bring information nearly as quickly as it happens.

**watchdog**

Role of the press in monitoring government actions.

Journalists, simply put, inform. Coverage of COVID-19 in 2020, for example, might include stories on number of cases, deaths, impact on the health care system, the effects on the

economy, closing of schools, or whether people were following safe practices when out in public. Coverage of a political campaign, on the other hand, might include information about candidates’ previous experience, their personal temperaments, or their views on important issues.

If there is a crisis in the economy, journalists provide information about the problem, explain the solutions being proposed, and indicate what can be expected in the

future regarding economic recovery.

Because of the importance of the press, politicians often court journalists, as they seek favorable coverage. They want

reporters to share their accomplishments with voters. Yet journalists and politicians are usually in an adversarial relationship because journalists want to report new stories on topics of interest to the public.

When the media inform, they also interpret the news. Just giving one story front-page coverage and relegating another to

an inside page involves interpreting what is more and less important. The role of interpretation has taken on even greater significance in the past few decades. In 1960, for example, journalists covered presidential campaigns in a very descriptive fashion

The First Amendment to the Constitution states that “Congress shall make no law … abridging the freedom … of the press.” This

protection is not unlimited, however. During times of war (or threat of war), national security concerns may require that the press not publish a story.

The government, however, is often too eager to stop publication of controversial stories, whereas the press may be too

willing to report on controversial stories that will boost sales. This conflict plays out in debates over prior restraint—government’s ability to restrict the publication of sensitive material

Answers to these difficult questions have been shaped by Supreme Court decisions. In the early 1930s, for example, the state of Minnesota stopped a small newspaper from

publishing controversial claims about the mayor of Minneapolis and convicted the publisher, Jay Near, under state libel laws. Near appealed the conviction all the way to the Supreme Court.

In \*Near v. Minnesota\* (1931), the Court ruled that only in exceptionally rare cases could the government stop the

printing of a story, overturning Near’s conviction and invalidating the Minnesota law that led to his conviction.

**libel**

Publishing false and damaging statements about another person.

**actual malice**

Supreme Court test for libel of a public figure, in which the plaintiff must prove that the publisher knew the material was false or acted with reckless disregard of whether it was true or false.

During the Vietnam War, the \* New York Times\* secured a copy of a top-secret Department of

Defense analysis detailing U.S. involvement in Vietnam and began publishing it, believing that the information, some of which contradicted official statements, was essential to public understanding of government policy. Citing national security, the Nixon Administration secured a court injunction forcing the \*Times\* to cease publication, but the newspaper appealed, and the case quickly went to the Supreme Court.