BIOL211 Spring 2026 Study Guide 2

A set of 66 vocabulary flashcards derived from the lecture notes, covering key biological concepts related to phylogeny, taxonomy, prokaryotes, fungi, and plants.

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species.

Systematics

A scientific discipline that uses fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships.

Shared derived characteristic

A similarity that is inherited from the most recent common ancestor of an entire group.

Shared ancestral characteristic

A similarity that arose prior to the common ancestor of the group.

Ancestral character

A character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon.

Derived character

An evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade.

Phenotype

Any aspect of the organism, including morphology, physiology, behavior, or DNA/Molecular data.

Outgroup

A species or group of species that is closely related to, but not a member of, the group under study.

Phylogenetic tree

A diagram that depicts a hypothesis of evolutionary relationships.

Synapomorphy

A derived character shared by clade members and unique to it.

Homoplasy

A shared character state that has not been inherited from a common ancestor.

Monophyletic group

Includes the most recent common ancestor of the group and all of its descendants (clade).

Paraphyletic group

Includes the most recent common ancestor of the group, but not all its descendants.

Polyphyletic group

Does not include the most recent common ancestor of all members of the group.

Biological species concept

Defines species as groups of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated.

Phylogenetic species concept

Defines species as a population or set of populations characterized by one or more shared derived characters.

Binomial

The two-part scientific name of a species.

Taxonomic hierarchy

A classification system that ranks biological organisms into categories from largest to smallest.

Cladogram

A diagram depicting evolutionary relationships, represented as branching phylogenetic trees.

Prokaryotes

Unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus, including Bacteria and Archaea.

Characteristics of prokaryotes

1. Single cells, 2. No nucleus, 3. Circular DNA, 4. Small cell size, 5. No membrane-bound organelles, 6. Binary Fission, 7. Sideways gene transfer, 8. Diverse metabolically, 9. Complicated cell walls.

Shapes of prokaryotes

The three basic shapes are cocci, bacilli, and spirillum.

Gram-positive bacteria

Bacteria with a thicker peptidoglycan wall that stain purple.

Gram-negative bacteria

Bacteria with a thinner peptidoglycan wall that do not stain purple.

Surface layer

The rigid paracrystalline layer found in some bacteria and archaea.

Slime layer

The gelatinous layer found in some bacteria.

Flagella

Slender, rigid structures involved in locomotion, spinning like a propeller.

Fimbrae

Short, hairlike structures in gram-negative bacteria that aid in attachment and conjugation.

Pili

Longer structures than fimbriae that allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA.

Chemotaxis

The ability of organisms to move toward or away from certain stimuli.

Endospore

A thick wall around a bacterial genome and a small portion of the cytoplasm.

Extremophiles

Some archaea that live in extreme environments.

Halophiles

Archaea that live in highly saline environments.

Thermophiles

Archaea that live in very hot environments.

Methanogens

Archaea that live in swamps and marshes and produce methane as a waste product.

Cyanobacteria

Photoautotrophs that generate oxygen.

Rhizobium

A genus that forms root nodules in legumes and fixes atmospheric nitrogen.

Horizontal gene transfer

The transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than traditional reproduction.

Conjugation

A type of horizontal gene transfer involving cell-to-cell contact.

Transduction

A type of horizontal gene transfer mediated by bacteriophages.

Transformation

A type of horizontal gene transfer from the environment.

F plasmid

A plasmid that allows interactions between donor and recipient bacteria during conjugation.

Virus basic structure

All viruses consist of DNA or RNA (nucleic acid) and a capsid.

Lytic cycle

A viral replication process that results in the destruction of the host cell.

Lysogenic cycle

A viral replication process that allows the virus to integrate into the host's genome.

Pandemic conditions

Three conditions necessary for a pandemic: 1. Virus development, 2. Impact causing illness, 3. Rapid spread.

Protist

The informal name of the kingdom of mostly unicellular eukaryotes.

Nutritional diversity in protists

Includes phototrophs, heterotrophs, and mixotrophs.

Hyphae

Long slender filaments that make up fungi.

Mycelium

A thicker structure formed by the intertwining of hyphae.

Septate hyphae

Hyphae that are divided by septa.

Coenocytic hyphae

Hyphae with continuous cytoplasm without septa.

Mycorrhizae

Mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi

Fungi that form sheaths around roots and grow into the extracellular spaces.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Fungi that extend hyphae through root cell walls into the cells.

Pheromones in fungi

Sexual signaling molecules that communicate mating types among fungi.

Lichens

Symbiotic associations between fungi and photosynthetic partners.

Mycosis

The general term for a fungal infection in animals.

Microsporidia

Obligate, intracellular animal parasites.

Chytrids

Aquatic, flagellated fungi closely related to ancestral fungi.

Basidiomycetes

A group of familiar fungi that includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, and shelf fungi.

Ascomycetes

Includes bread yeasts, common molds, cup fungi, truffles, and morels.

Chlorophytes

A clade of green algae that never made it to land.

Charophytes

A clade of green algae that is the sister to all land plants.

Alteration of Generations

The reproductive cycle where plants alternate between two multicellular stages.

Gametophyte

The haploid stage in the plant lifecycle that produces haploid gametes.

Sporophyte

The diploid stage that produces haploid spores by meiosis.

Placental Transfer cells

Cells that transfer nutrients from the parent to the embryo.

Embryophytes

Land plants characterized by the dependency of the embryo on the parent.

Bryophytes

The closest living descendants of the first land plants.

Vascular tissue

The tissues responsible for the transport of water and nutrients; includes xylem and phloem.

Seed advantages

Seeds provide protection, a food supply, and aid in dispersal.

Seed structure

A seed consists of an embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat.

Conifers

The most familiar gymnosperm phylum that includes pines and redwoods.

Ginkgo

A gymnosperm with only one living species, known for its flagellated sperm.

Angiosperms

The group of flowering plants.

Carpel

The female part of the flower, consisting of stigma, style, and ovary.

Fruit

A mature ovary that can include other flower parts, protecting seeds and aiding in dispersal.