Exam 3 Motor Learning

What is transfer of learning?

Influence of previous experience on learning a new skill and performing a skill in a new context

Types of transfer

positive, negative, zero

What is positive transfer?

Positive transfer is that there is an enhancement or facilitation of the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context.

What is negative transfer?

Negative transfer occurs when previous experience hinders or interferes with the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context.

What is zero transfer?

Zero transfer is in which previous experience has no bearing on learning or performance.

Why is the transfer principle important?

• Significance for developing skill progressions in coaching and physical education contexts.

• Significance in assessing the effectiveness of practice conditions

Why does positive transfer occur?

• Similarity of skill and context

• Similarity of processing requirements

When does negative transfer occur?

• Environment context of two performance situations are similar, but have different movement characteristics.

• Typically only influences early learning stage

WHY does negative transfer occur?

• Perception-action coupling can become problematic when the familiar situation requires movement that is different from what was learned.

• Results from cognitive confusion

• Learner's intrinsic dynamics compete with required task dynamics

What is learning how to learn

• Anti-thesis of specificity of learning principle

• Learning from practicing multiple tasks

• Ex: learning strategies to cope with new material

Bilateral transfer

Transfer of learning between two limbs

Symmetry vs Asymmetry of Bilateral Transfer

• Asymmetric transfer: greater transfer from one limb than from the other limb

• Symmetric transfer: transfer is similar from one limb to another, regardless of which was used first.

Why does bilateral transfer occur?

• Cognitive: basis is the cognitive info related to achieve the goal of the skill

• Motor control: generalized motor program (GMP)

• Interhemispheric: EMG shows similar activity between contralateral limbs

What is demonstration?

It typically involves visual observation on the part of the learner.

What does the observer perceive from a demonstration?

The observer perceives and uses the relative motions that characterize the coordinated movement pattern.

What information should be conveyed by a demonstration?

• Showing movement effects is effective in inducing coordination changes similar to providing endpoint information in a demonstration.

• Consider differences in how movement is PERCEIVED vs. how it is CONTROLLED when determining the appropriate information to provide

What is the most important characteristic of a skill being learned?

Whether the skill requires the acquisition of a new pattern of coordination.

What does the influence of demonstration depend on?

The characteristics of the skill being learned.

Neural basis for observational learning

mirror neurons in the brain show activation in inferior frontal gyrus and parietal and lateral temporal cortex

How must observed skill demonstrations be performed for learner beneift?

Demonstrator MUST perform the skill "correctly" because the Observer tries to imitate successful strategies.

Can novices benefit from observing other novices?

Yes, research shows that beginners can benefit from observing other beginners practice a skill because it can discourage imitation of a skilled model's performance and encourages active problem-solving.

Timing and frequency of demonstration

• Demonstrations should precede practice

• Instructor should continue demonstrating during practice as frequently as necessary.

Auditory modeling

Particularly effective when the goal is to move within a certain movement

What theories proved show that observed demonstrations influence learning?

• Cognitive mediation theory (Bandura): observed movements are translated into a symbolic memory code that forms the basis that is used to guide performance

• Dynamic view of modeling (Gibson): visual system "picks up" from model which constrains the body and limbs to act in specific ways

Potential downsides to demonstration

• No "ideal" movement form appropriate for everyone

• Can subvert problem solving

• Can make illusion that the skill does not fit in observer's capability

Factors to consider with verbal instructions and cues

• Using verbal analogies where possible

• Focusing attention on invariant environmental context regulatory conditions

• Relates to a critical goal of the initial stage of learning

How to give verbal instructions

• Give instructions that influence goal achievement strategies

• Be careful of ironic effects (tendency to perform actions you are intentionally trying to avoid

Verbal cues and how to give it

• Short phrases can me used to direct the performer's attention to regulatory conditions in the environmental context and prompt key movement components of skills.

• Can be used in several different ways in skill learning settings.

Two Types of Performance Related Information

task-intrinsic feedback and augmented feedback

Task-intrinsic feedback

Sensory information that is naturally available when performing a skill

Augmented feedback

Performance related information that is added to task-intrinsic feedback, typically comes from an external source

What is knowledge of results?

Augmented feedback that is externally presented with the outcome of an attempt to perform a skill.

What does knowledge of results allow learners to distinguish?

The influences of task-intrinsic and augmented feedback on learning a skill.

What does knowledge of performance provide information about?

The movement characteristics that led to a performance outcome.

How can knowledge of performance be communicated?

It can be given verbally and nonverbally.

Roles of augmented feedback

• Facilitates achievement of the action goal of the skill

• Motivates the learner to continue striving toward a goal

Five issues related to augmented feedback

• Info about errors vs. correct aspects of performance

• KR versus KP

• Qualitative versus quantitative information

• Augmented feedback based on error size

• Erroneous augmented feedback

Types of KP

• Descriptive: describes the error the performer has made

• Presecriptive: along with error, corrective measure is also told

Concurrent augmented feedback

• Provided while a person is performing the skill

• Can have a negative effect on learning or enhance skill learning

• Can reduce the likelihood that learners will become dependent on feedback

Terminal Augmented Feedback

• provided after a person has completed the performance or skill

• two intervals of time: KR-delay interval and Post-KR interval

Views on Frequency of Presenting Augmented Feedback

• Traditional view: should be given during or after every practice trial because no learning occured on trials without augmented feedback

• Contemporary view: research supports reducing the frequency for giving augmented feedback

Theoretical basis for current view of Presenting Augmented Feedback

• Feedback on every trial guides learner to successful performance but poor learning

• Learner becomes dependent on augmented feedback which leads to poor performance when feedback is withdrawn

Techniques that reduce frequency of augmented feedback

• providing feedback may reduce learner's dependence by subverting cognitive activities or by interfering with the processing of task intrinsic feedback

3 ways to provide augmented feedback that can reduce the likelihood of developing dependence

1. Performance based bandwidths

2. Self selected frequency

3. Summary and averaged augmented feedback

What is practice variability?

Refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics a person experiences while practicing a skill

Constant v. Variable practice

• Constant: involves one variation of a skill

• Variable: Involves several variations of the skill

The Future Performance Benefit of Practice Variability

• Enhances positive transfer from practice to test contexts

• However, can be related to increased performance error during practice

How to implement practice variability

-Assess characteristics of the skill and physical context in which skill will be performed

-Vary characteristics according to the type of skill being learned (closed, closed with trial variability, open)

What is Contextual Interference (CI)

Memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice

When does the contextual interference effect occur?

When a high amount of contextual interference results in better learning of task variations than a low amount

What was the first experiment that showed evidence for the CI effect?

Shea and Morgan experiment

What type of performers were involved in the Shea and Morgan experiment?

Beginners with multiple skill variations and skilled performers refining multiple skill variations

Limit of the CI Effect

• Motor skill: Likely be found for motor skill variations controlled by different generalized motor programs than by the same program

• Learner skill: Age and level appear to be the most likely limiting factors

Challenge point hypothesis

explaining how improving tasks is based on how skilled a person is

Why does CI effect occur?

•Elaboration Hypothesis: High CI leads to a more elaborate and distinctive memory representation of the practiced skill variations (Shea & Morgan, 1979)

•Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis: High CI leads to stronger memory representation because of forgetting and subsequent action plan reconstruction during practice (Lee & Magill, 1985)

Both explain..

-Experiments to test both hypothesis have demonstrated two important characteristics

•Higher levels of CI involve greater attention demands during practice

•People who practice according to a blocked schedule tend to overestimate how well they are learning during practice

Practice Specificity

• View that motor skill learning is influenced bypractice condition characteristics

• Origins can be traced to Thorndike's identical elements theory

• Also linked to Henry's specificity of motor abilities hypothesis

Especial skills

Refer to skill variations that are performed markedly better than similar variations

Example: shooting from the free throw line

What is Overlearning?

continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion

Procedural skills

Skills that include a combination of cognitive and motor components and require performance of a series of movements that individually are relatively easy to execute

Why would overlearning lead to poor retention?

More practice of relatively simple skills may result in learners' not continuing to engage in appropriate amounts of cognitive effort (forget or transfer bad)

What is massed practice?

Longer practice sessions/trials and shorter rest between sessions/trials

What is distributed practice?

• Time is distributed across many shorter sessions

• Shorter practice trials and longer rest between trials within each session

What is the benefit of distributed practice?

Better learning can result when people practice skills in more frequent and shorter sessions

Distributed practice: Fatigue hypothesis

Fatigue negatively influences learning for massed practice schedules, given the detrimental effects it can have on learning a motor skill

Distributed practice: Cognitive effort hypothesis

The massing of practice within a day/few days may reduce the amount of cognitive effort used on each trial as practice continues beyond a certain critical amount

Distributed practice: Memory consolidation hypothesis

To store in memory the relevant information we need to learn a skill, certain neuro-biochemical processes must occur

What type of scheduling is needed for Continuous skills and why?

Distributed schedules are more effective in promoting learning than massed schedules

What type of scheduling is needed for Discrete skills and why?

Massed schedules are more effective in promoting learning

What is skill complexity and levels of it?

The number of parts or components and the degree of information processing that characterize a skill

• More complex = more info processing demands

• Less complex = limited attention demand

What is organization and levels of it?

The relationships among the component parts of the skill

• High level = parts are spatially and temporally interdependent

• Low level = parts are independent

When should you use whole or part practice?

• Low complexity, high organizaton = Whole

• High complexity, low organization = Part

Skill classification in part or whole practice

• Discrete = Whole

• Serial = Part

• Continuous = Whole or Part

Practicing parts: Fractionization

involves practicing indiviual limbs first for a skill that involves the asymmetric and a simultaneous coordination of the arms or legs

Practicing parts: Segmentation

Begin practice with first part of the skill, then progressively add to each part

Practicing parts: Simplification

Practice an easier variation of the skill before practicing the skill itself

Six ways to implement a simplification approach to skill practice

1. Reducing object difficulty

2. Changing the task to difficulty

3. Reducing attention demands

4. Reducing speed

5. Adding auditory cues

6. Sequencing skill progressions

Attention Approach to Involving Part Practice in Whole Practice

• Used when it is not advisable or practical to separate parts of a skill for practice.

• Includes focusing attention on specific parts that need work.

What is mental practice?

The cognitive rehearsal of a physical in the absence of overt physical movements

What are the roles for mental practice?

• A practice strategy to aid the acquisition of motor skills.

• A means of preparing to perform a learned skill.

The different types of practice that influence skill learning

Physical practice, mental practice, no practice.

Findings of Mental Practice

• Physical practice is better than mental practice and non-practice.

• Mental practice can also promote cognitive problem-solving activity.

Mental practice benefits in a rehab setting

• Enables interventions to begin very early in the recovery process, when little or no movement possible

• Inexpensive

• Can be done anywhere

• Involves no safety risks

Mental practice benefits for learning medical procedures

• Cost Effective Way to Augment the Traditional Training of Surgical Skills.

• I like the important role that imagery quality may play in influencing the quality of physical performance.

Mental practice benefits for for power and speed training

• Can improve power for people learning a 40-meter bicycle sprint.

• Can gain strength on a range of different tasks with various combinations of physical and mental practice.

• Influences movement speed.

Mental practice preparation strategy

• Get ready

• Mentally imaging performing the action

• Concentrating intensely on only one cue instead of action

• Execute

• Evaluate performance outcome

What are the hypotheses of the benefits of mental practice?

• Neuromuscular hypothesis: EMG muscle activity

• Brain activity hypothesis: Activity similar to actual performance

• Cognitive hypothesis: helps learner answer "what to do" questions