Branches of Ethics and Their Influence on Morality

What are the three main branches of ethics?

Metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.

What does metaethics seek to understand?

The nature of ethical properties, ethical statements, attitudes, and judgments.

What types of questions does metaethics address?

Questions like 'What is goodness?', 'What is justice?', and 'Are there objective or absolute values?'

What is the focus of normative ethics?

To determine which actions are right and wrong, or which character traits are good and bad.

What types of questions does normative ethics address?

Questions such as 'Which things are good and bad?' and 'What should we do?'

What does applied ethics deal with?

Ethical questions specific to a professional, disciplinary, or practical field.

Name two major subfields of applied ethics.

Business ethics and medical ethics.

What does business ethics examine?

Ethical principles and moral problems that arise in a business environment.

What is legal ethics?

An ethical code governing the conduct of people engaged in the practice of law.

What does environmental ethics consider?

The ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment.

What is the focus of medical ethics?

The study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine.

What is a moral theory?

A structured set of statements used to explain why a certain action is wrong or why we ought to act in certain ways.

What does consequentialism state about moral actions?

Only the consequences of actions matter morally; acts are deemed right based on their outcomes.

What are the two principles of consequentialism?

a) Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act; b) The better consequences an act produces, the more right that act is.

What is moral subjectivism?

The belief that right and wrong are determined by what an individual thinks or feels.

What is a criticism of moral subjectivism?

It denies significant moral principles and the possibility of moral criticism.

How does consequentialism view lying in certain situations?

It may consider lying right if it produces a better outcome, such as saving a person's life.

What is the challenge associated with consequentialism?

It can be difficult or impossible to predict the outcomes of actions ahead of time.

What is the role of moral theories in ethical discussions?

They provide a framework for evaluating specific moral issues.

What is the significance of moral theories throughout history?

Multiple common moral theories and traditions have emerged to explain morality.

How does applied ethics manifest in various fields?

It is found in areas like human rights, war, media, communication, and academic research.

What is the relationship between medical ethics and other branches of healthcare ethics?

Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches, such as nursing ethics.

What is moral subjectivism?

Moral subjectivism holds that there are no objective moral properties, and ethical statements are arbitrary, reflecting personal attitudes or feelings rather than immutable truths.

What does it mean for a statement to be considered morally right in moral subjectivism?

A statement is considered morally right if it is met with approval by the person of interest.

What is Simple Subjectivism?

Simple Subjectivism is the view that ethical statements reflect personal sentiments and preferences rather than objective facts.

What is Individualist Subjectivism?

Individualist Subjectivism, originally proposed by Protagoras, suggests that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are individuals, emphasizing self-interest.

What is Moral Relativism?

Moral Relativism posits that what is morally right is determined by societal approval, leading to different moral standards across societies and historical periods.

What is the Ideal Observer Theory?

The Ideal Observer Theory claims that moral rightness is determined by the attitudes of a hypothetical ideal observer who is perfectly rational and informed.

Who are some philosophers associated with the Ideal Observer Theory?

Adam Smith and David Hume espoused early versions, while Roderick Firth developed a more sophisticated modern version.

What is Ethical Egoism?

Ethical Egoism asserts that right and wrong are determined by self-interest, and it is immoral to act against one's self-interest, though it does not exclude helping others if it serves one's interests.

What is Utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism, popularized by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, is the theory that moral decisions should maximize happiness or minimize suffering for the greatest number.

What is the core principle of Utilitarianism?

The core principle is often summarized as 'The greatest good for the greatest number'.

What is Deontology?

Deontology focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, prioritizing moral norms over the consequences of actions.

Who is the most famous exponent of Deontology?

Immanuel Kant is widely recognized as the most famous exponent of Deontology.

What is the Categorical Imperative?

The Categorical Imperative is a maxim coined by Kant that states: 'Act only according to that maxim by which you can also will that it would become a universal law.'

What is Virtue Ethics?

Virtue Ethics emphasizes the importance of character traits, defining a virtue as an excellent trait of character that is well entrenched in the individual.

How does moral subjectivism affect objections to behavior?

If one is a moral subjectivist, they cannot object to anyone's behavior, assuming individuals act according to their own beliefs about what is right.

What does moral subjectivism imply about ethical statements?

It implies that ethical statements do not express immutable truths but are shaped by personal attitudes and societal conventions.

What is the relationship between ethical egoism and psychological egoism?

Ethical egoism is often based on psychological egoism, which suggests that humans naturally act in their self-interest.

How does ethical egoism view altruism?

Ethical egoism suggests that altruistic actions are motivated by personal benefits or pleasures derived from helping others.

What distinguishes Deontology from Consequentialism?

Deontology evaluates the morality of actions based on adherence to rules, while Consequentialism evaluates morality based on the outcomes of those actions.

What is the significance of societal rules in Deontology?

Deontology asserts that society needs rules to function and that moral behavior is defined by adherence to these rules.

What is the role of perception in moral subjectivism?

Judgments about human conduct are shaped by perception, indicating that moral evaluations are limited to individual viewpoints.

What does virtue ethics emphasize as the key element of ethical thinking?

An individual's character, rather than rules about acts (Deontology) or their consequences (Consequentialism).

What is the main belief of virtue ethics regarding moral decision-making?

Only good people can make good moral decisions, and one should constantly seek to improve oneself.

Name some universal qualities appreciated in virtue ethics.

Wisdom, prudence, loyalty, honesty, temperance, bravery, magnanimity, and justice.

What is eudaimonism in the context of virtue ethics?

It is the classical formulation that holds the proper goal of human life is eudaimonia, which can be translated as 'happiness', 'well-being', or the 'good life', achieved through practicing virtues in everyday activities.

What role does 'phronesis' play in virtue ethics?

'Phronesis' refers to practical wisdom used to resolve conflicts or dilemmas while practicing virtues.

Who is largely identified with virtue ethics and how did he categorize virtues?

Aristotle, who categorized virtues into moral virtues and 'phronesis' (practical wisdom).

What is the Ethics of Care and who developed it?

Developed by feminist writer Annete Baier, it emphasizes virtues exemplified by women, such as caring and nurturing, and critiques traditional masculine views of morality.

What are Agent-Based Theories in virtue ethics?

Developed by Michael Slote, these theories account for virtue based on common-sense intuitions about admirable character traits, identified through moral exemplars.

What do Natural Rights theorists believe?

They believe every person has inalienable rights, such as the right to life, property, and liberty, which are self-evident and essential for human flourishing and civil society.

What is Moral Relativism?

A theory stating that no person's morals are better or worse than another's, shaped by societal context, and that no society is inherently superior.

What is normative moral relativism?

The idea that all societies should accept each other's differing moral values, as there are no universal moral principles.

How does moral relativism contrast with moral absolutism?

Moral relativism argues there are no universal moral truths, while moral absolutism asserts there is always one right answer to ethical questions.

What is the origin of the word 'culture'?

Derived from the Latin word 'cultura' or 'cultus', meaning care or cultivation.

How does culture relate to individual potential and social groups?

Culture implies that individuals have innate qualities that can only be developed through interaction with others, leading to achievements and self-actualization.

What is the significance of achievements in the context of culture?

Achievements help individuals achieve self-actualization and contribute to their society.

What does the term 'self-actualization' refer to?

The realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potential, often considered as the ultimate goal of personal development.

What is the relationship between culture and opportunities for development?

Individuals need opportunities provided by others to develop their inborn talents into real achievements.

What does virtue ethics suggest about moral improvement?

It suggests that moral improvement comes from a lifelong commitment to practicing virtues.

What qualities are often marginalized in traditional views of morality according to the Ethics of Care?

Qualities such as caring, patience, nurturing, and self-sacrifice, which are often associated with feminine perspectives.

How do virtue ethicists view the role of character traits in moral decisions?

They believe that admirable character traits, such as benevolence and compassion, are essential for making moral decisions.

What is the importance of moral exemplars in Agent-Based Theories?

Moral exemplars help identify which character traits are considered admirable and guide moral behavior.

How do Natural Rights theorists justify the existence of rights?

They argue that these rights are self-evident and essential for the flourishing of human happiness and the foundation of civil society.

Who developed one of the classic definitions of culture?

Anthropologist Edward B. Taylor.

How did Edward B. Taylor define culture?

As a complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired as a member of society.

What does culture refer to according to Taylor's definition?

The totality of the humanly created world, including material culture, social institutions, knowledge, and meaning.

What aspects of human activity does culture encompass according to Taylor?

From fine arts to popular entertainment, everyday behavior to sophisticated technology.

How do sociologists define culture?

As the entire way of life followed by people, including everything learned and shared in society.

What are some components of culture as defined by sociologists?

Beliefs, customs, skills, habits, traditions, and knowledge common to members of society.

Since when has culture been present in human existence?

Since the dawn of human existence.

What impact does culture have on individuals?

It shapes how they live and relate to themselves and other cultures.

What is culture described as in terms of social environment?

A social environment in which a person is born and lives with others.

How does culture affect human development?

In physical, knowledge, thought, relationship, religious, or moral development.

What does culture represent in terms of social heritage?

It is a person's social heritage passed from one generation to the next.

What does culture teach its members?

How to relate and live with other members of society and with people outside their culture.

What role does culture play in establishing social identity?

It molds and establishes a social identity and knowledge of common objectives among members.

What norms and guidelines does culture provide?

Norms, customs, laws, and moral demands to be followed by its members.

What does culture dictate about behavior?

It provides consistency and systematic patterns of behavior, telling members what to do and how to do things.

What is the concept of cross-cultural relationships?

The idea that people from different cultures can acknowledge, respect, and understand each other's diverse lives.

How can cross-cultural relationships change individuals?

They expose individuals to new ideas and possibilities that challenge their cultural limitations.

What is a potential threat of cross-cultural relationships?

The realization that no single culture can claim absolute truth.

Who established the concept of cultural relativism?

German-American anthropologist Franz Boas.

When was cultural relativism established as an analytic tool?

In the early 20th century.

What does cultural relativism promote?

Understanding and appreciating the diversity of cultural practices and beliefs.

What is cultural relativism?

The ability to understand a culture on its own terms without making judgments based on one's own cultural standards.

What is the goal of cultural relativism?

To promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one's own culture.

How does cultural relativism view the superiority of cultures?

It leads to the view that no one culture is superior to another when compared to systems of morality, law, and politics.

What does cultural relativism suggest about moral standards?

It suggests that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a specific social context, with no absolute standard of good or evil.

How does cultural relativism relate to ethical relativism?

Cultural relativism is closely related to ethical relativism, which views truth as variable and not absolute.

What does ethical relativism state about right and wrong?

It states that what constitutes right and wrong is determined solely by the individual or by society.

What is a potential disadvantage of cultural relativism?

It creates a system fueled by personal bias, as people define their own moral codes based on personal perspectives.

How could cultural relativism lead to chaos?

It could allow individuals to follow their own moral codes without consequence, potentially leading to harmful actions like murder or theft.

What is a criticism of cultural relativism regarding human nature?

It is based on the assumption of the perfection of humanity, which is flawed since people can be forgetful, aggressive, or dishonest.

What is an example of cultural practices that cultural relativism seeks to understand?

Practices such as eating insects, genocides, or genital cutting.

How does cultural relativism view cultural expressions like human sacrifice?

It sees them as neither good nor bad, but simply as culturally distinctive.

What is the implication of cultural relativism on societal judgment?

No society can pass judgment on another society since truth is not objective.

What does cultural relativism imply about ethical systems?

It implies that there is no right or wrong ethical system, as opinions on ethics are subject to individual cultural perspectives.

What is a consequence of individuals following their own moral codes?

It can lead to a lack of group perspective, where people prioritize their own biases over communal values.