Topic 2: (USA) Protest and Reaction

Malcolm X

• More radical approach than MLK appealing especially to Black Americans in northern ghettos.

• Born Malcolm Little in 1925 in Nebraska, his family supported the UNIA founded by Marcus Garvey.

• At age six, his father was murdered by the Black Legion, and his family home was burned down.

• He later became involved in crime and was imprisoned for seven years, where he encountered the Nation of Islam

• 1952 = after his release, he joined the Nation of Islam and changed his name to Malcolm X, rejecting his “slave name.”

• He promoted black separation and criticised King’s non-violent approach.

• 1964 = he split from the Nation of Islam and founded the Organisation of Afro-American Unity in June 1964, promoting global unity and independence for people of African descent.

• 1965 = he was assassinated in Harlem by members of the Nation of Islam.

• Malcolm X’s main impact was his influence on later radical movements, including the Black Panther Party and the Black Power movement.

Black Power and Black Panthers

• The SNCC helped desegregate lunch counters but became more radical over time.

• 1966 = SNCC voted to expel all white members

• 1967 = Carmichael was replaced by H. Rap Brown, who supported armed self-defence and called for Black Americans to take over white-owned stores in ghettos, leading to riots in Maryland, where he was wounded.

• CORE also became more radical and in 1966, McKissick became leader and endorsed Black Power at its Baltimore convention.

• 1967 = “multiracial” was removed from its constitution, and in summer 1968, white members were excluded.

• By the end of 1968, Roy Innis replaced McKissick and supported more radical direct action.

• Black Power was influenced by global anti-colonial struggles and opposition to apartheid in South Africa, and leaders like Carmichael opposed the Vietnam War.

• 1966 = Black Panther Party was founded in California by Seale, Newton, and Cleaver.

• The Black Panthers promoted black nationalism, wore black uniforms, carried rifles, and supported armed self-defence.

• They admired revolutionary figures like Che Guevara and demanded reparations and exemption from military service during the Vietnam War.

• Black Power gained global attention at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, when Tommie Smith and John Carlos gave the Black Power salute.

• Violent clashes occurred between the Black Panthers and police/FBI (1969) with 28 members (including Fred Hampton) being killed and hundreds were imprisoned.

• 1972 = the party declined; at its peak it had about 5,000 members.

• Despite decline, Malcolm X and the Black Panthers transformed Black protest, spreading it beyond the South to major cities like Oakland, Chicago, and New York, offering a radical alternative to non-violence.

MLK’s changing priorities

• MLK remained the leading figure in the civil rights movement until his assassination in 1968, Memphis.

• In 1964, he was present Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act 1964, ending most legal segregation, though violence and voter suppression continued.

• During Freedom Summer (1964) in Mississippi, activists trying to register Black voters faced violence and murder from groups like the KKK.

• 1965 = King led the Selma to Montgomery march however marchers were attacked by police at Edmund Pettus Bridge, gaining national media attention.

• Federal intervention followed, and the march helped secure the Voting Rights Act 1965

• After 1965, King’s influence declined as more radical movements (SNCC, CORE, Black Power) gained support and the Watts Riots showed limits to his impact.

• 1966 = King campaigned against housing segregation in Chicago, but faced strong resistance, especially in Gage Park, and the campaign failed.

• 1967 = King opposed the Vietnam War, losing support from Johnson.

• 1968 = he focused on economic inequality, supporting the Poor People’s Campaign.

• April 1968 = while supporting a sanitation workers’ strike, King was assassinated at the Lorraine Motel.

• His death sparked nationwide riots; his funeral in Atlanta was attended by figures including Nixon

MLK’s Achievements

• King was widely seen as the unofficial leader of the civil rights movement, reflected in his memorial in Washington, D.C. and the national holiday Martin Luther King Jr. Day.

• His commitment to non-violent protest gained support from both Black and white Americans and helped him influence the federal government.

• King’s powerful speaking and ability to attract media attention exposed violent reactions by white authorities in the Old South, increasing national awareness of civil rights issues.

• He benefited from support by the Supreme Court of the United States and a sympathetic federal government during 1963–1967 under Johnson.

• From 1966, the movement became more divided as radical groups like Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and Congress of Racial Equality moved away from his approach.

• Many younger Black Americans felt King focused too much on legal equality and not enough on social and economic change.

• King’s opposition to the Vietnam War further reduced his influence with the federal government.

Cesar Chevaz and the Chicano Movement

• The Black civil rights movement inspired other ethnic groups, including Hispanic Americans, who faced discrimination in jobs, pay, and political rights.

• In California, activism focused on agricultural workers and Cesar Chavez led the United Farm Workers in campaigning for better conditions.

• 1965 = Chavez led a grape workers’ strike and a national boycott of California grapes, which lasted five years and expanded into a wider civil rights movement.

• The union registered 100,000 new Hispanic voters, increasing political participation.

• Activists adopted the term “Chicano” to express pride and militancy, similar to the Black Power movement.

• The movement split over whether to include students, leading to the rise of groups such as the Brown Berets (Los Angeles who pushed for equality but had limited success in achieving major reforms.

• By the early 1970s, the Chicano movement fragmented into moderate and radical factions, similar to divisions in the Black civil rights movement.

The Start of Student Protests

• During the 1950s–1960s, rising affluence led to more higher education

• By the late 1960s, 50% of over-18s attended college and 20% gained degrees, turning campuses into centres of protest.

• 1964 = early student protest began at the University of California (Oakland) with the Free Speech Movement demanding political freedom on campus.

• 1968 = 221 major demonstrations on issues such as the Vietnam War, student rights, and university governance

• 1972 = campuses were highly politicised.

Students for a Democratic Society or SDS (Student Protest Group)

• Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), founded in 1960 by Tom Hayden and Al Haber, became a leading group.

• 1962 = Hayden wrote the Port Huron Statement, calling for “participatory democracy” and criticising US institutions.

• Opposition to the Vietnam War became a major focus

• 1965 = Hayden organised a march on Washington, D.C.

• 1967 = 500,000 protesters gathered in Central Park.

• Key events increased opposition such as Tet Offensive (January 1968) undermined confidence in US victory and My Lai Massacre (revealed 1969) caused outrage.

• 1968 = many Americans believed the US could not win the war; support grew for Eugene McCarthy against Lyndon B. Johnson, who chose not to run again in March 1968.

Yippies (Student Protest Group)

• 1968 = protests at the Democratic Convention in Chicago led to riots

• Mayor Richard J. Daley used 12,000 police to restore order.

• Radical groups emerged: Youth International Party (“Yippies”) disrupted protests.

Weather Underground (Student Protest Group)

• 1969 = the Weather Underground carried out bombings in 1969–1970, causing deaths and arrests.

• 1970 = the President's Commission on Campus Unrest linked unrest to a wider youth culture rejecting traditional values, not just the Vietnam War.

• Student protest contributed to a broader backlash, helping the rise of Richard Nixon’s “silent majority.”

Counterculture and its key features

• The 1960s marked by changes in lifestyle and appearance: long hair, rejection of traditional sexual norms, and experimentation with drugs such as marijuana

• 1967 = the “flower power” movement emerged with slogans like “Make Love not War.” That same year, The Beatles released ‘All You Need Is Love’.

• The counterculture created a generational divide, as young people rejected traditional values held by their parents.

• It also transformed music with early influences including Bob Dylan

• After 1963, more rebellious bands like The Rolling Stones and The Doors became popular.

• The most iconic event was the Woodstock Festival in summer 1969 at Yasgur’s Farm, attracting over 40,000 people.

• Performers included Joan Baez, Jimi Hendrix, Grateful Dead, and Janis Joplin.

• Woodstock symbolised the peak of 1960s counterculture and inspired future large-scale music festivals.

Growth of Women’s Movement - NOW

• The women’s movement grew rapidly between 1963–1972, as more women entered work: by 1965, over 25 million women were employed

• By 1968 = nearly 40% of married women with young children worked.

• Employment for women aged 20–24 rose from 50% (1964) to 61% (1973).

• The contraceptive pill (early 1960s) gave women more control over having children.

• 1963 = Betty Friedan published ‘The Feminine Mystique’, criticising traditional domestic roles.

• The Civil Rights Act 1964 banned discrimination in employment based on sex.

• 1966 = Friedan and 300 activists founded the National Organization for Women (NOW).

• NOW aimed to achieve equality in employment, expand childcare support and legalise abortion

• NOW challenged workplace discrimination through the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).

• A key case involved air stewardesses, leading to rulings that women could not be dismissed for marriage or age.

• Women’s groups helped push reforms like the Equal Pay Act and influenced the Roe v. Wade decision in 1973, which legalised abortion.

Growth of Women’s Movement - WLM

• 1967–1968 = a more radical movement emerged known as the Women’s Liberation Movement

• It gained national attention in 1968 by protesting the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City, criticising it as degrading to women.

• The WLM focused on broader social and cultural change, challenging traditional gender roles and expectations.

• A major success came in 1972 with education reform requiring institutions receiving federal funding to end sex discrimination, including in sports.

• 1971 = only 7% of athletes in education were female.

• 1972 = Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment; 28 states ratified it within a year, but it failed to reach the required 75% of states.

• By 1972, the WLM and NOW had made women’s rights a central national issue, helping shift attitudes away from the idea that women should remain in the home.

The impact of Sexual Liberation

• The student protest movement, youth counterculture, and women’s movement all contributed to increasing sexual liberalisation in the USA between 1963–1972.

• The contraceptive pill, approved in 1960 by the FDA had a major impact with 1.2 million women were using it by 1962 and rising to 6.5 million by 1965

• This led to greater sexual freedom, including increased premarital sex, often described as a “sexual revolution.”

• By the mid-1970s, surveys showed 76% of women and 75% of men in eight colleges had engaged in sexual intercourse by their third year.

• The 1960s counterculture promoted ideas of “free love” and more relaxed attitudes to relationships.

• Traditional marriage patterns declined with divorce rates rose almost 100% during the 1960s and a further 82% by 1982

• People living alone increased from 10.9% (1964) to 23% (1980)

• These changes marked a major shift away from traditional family values of the 1950s, transforming attitudes to relationships and family life by the 1970s.

The origin of gay rights

• Between 1963–1972, awareness and acceptance of homosexuality in the USA increased significantly, though in 1963 being gay was still illegal.

• During and after WW2, many were dismissed from the military for being gay, and in 1953 Eisenhower authorised the dismissal of gay federal employees.

• Before the 1960s, underground gay communities existed in cities like San Francisco and Los Angeles, but faced police harassment and violence.

• Early organisations included Mattachine Society (1950) and Daughters of Bilitis (1955)

• 1965 = small protests for gay rights took place outside the White House.

• A major turning point came in 1969, when police raided the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, sparking three days of riots.

• The Stonewall Riots led to the rise of the gay liberation movement, inspired by civil rights and women’s movements.

• One key success was in 1973, when the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses.

• The movement encouraged people to “come out,” and by 1973 around 800 gay and lesbian organisations existed across the USA.

• Gay communities expanded with churches, businesses, and services

• 1977 = Harvey Milk became one of the first openly gay elected officials in San Francisco, before later being assassinated.

Tackling poverty and unemployment (Johnson’s Great Society)

• A key part was the “war on poverty,” despite major wealth inequality with the top 20% owning 77% of wealth and the bottom 20% owning 0.5%

• 1962 = 20–25% of Americans struggled to afford basic needs

• The Economic Opportunity Act 1964 created the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to coordinate anti-poverty programmes.

• Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), helped the poor and by 1968, 3,000 volunteers had joined.

• Community Action Programmes (CAPs) aimed to involve poor communities (including Black Americans in the South), but in some northern cities they were taken over by militants critical of government efforts.

• The Job Corps trained unemployed youth; despite discipline issues and helped place around 10,000 jobs, with support from companies like IBM.

• The Appalachian Regional Development Act (1965) provided $1.1 billion to improve living standards in Appalachia.

• Overall, the “war on poverty” cost about $10 billion and poverty declined significantly from 40 million (1959) to just over 25 million (1970)

• Success was due partly to economic growth and partly to government programmes.

• Johnson’s strong Democratic majority after the 1964 election and his experience in Congress allowed him to pass reforms that John F. Kennedy had struggled to achieve.

Improving housing and cities (Johnson’s Great Society)

• Johnson continued Kennedy’s housing reforms as part of the Great Society.

• The Housing and Urban Development Act 1965 provided for 240,000 houses and $2.9 million for urban renewal.

• Johnson created the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), led by Robert C. Weaver, the first Black Cabinet member.

• The Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act 1966 offered 80% federal grants to cities for crime prevention, healthcare, and job creation, $412 million (1966) to $512 million (1967)

• Funding was reduced in 1968 which limited impact

• 1968 = Housing Act 1968 aimed to build 26 million homes in 10 years.

• Congress provided $1.7 million for the first three years, but limited planning controls led to poorly built housing.

• Criticism grew, and under Nixon in 1969, federal funding for the programme was reduced.

Improving education (Johnson’s Great Society)

• Johnson prioritised education as part of his “war on poverty,” aiming to support poorer children.

• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) allocated $1 billion per year to schools with high numbers of low-income students, targeting about five million disadvantaged children.

• This Act marked a major shift by directing federal funding to specific schools rather than all schools, and it also included aid for church-run schools.

• 1968 = expanded through the Bilingual Education Act to support non-English-speaking students.

• The Head Start helped eight million children from low-income families attend preschool.

• The Higher Education Act 1965 provided student loans, expanding access to university education.

• As a result, more students from poorer backgrounds entered higher education, and universities such as Florida State University and Michigan State University expanded rapidly

Medicare and Medicaid (Johnson’s Great Society)

• Johnson succeeded in healthcare reform where Truman and Kennedy had failed.

• Medicare was introduced in 1965, providing medical care for people aged 65 and over without insurance.

• 1965 = only about 50% of over-65s had hospital insurance, and few could afford full medical coverage.

• Medicare was funded jointly by the federal government and individuals; in its first year, over 19 million people enrolled.

• Medicaid was also introduced in 1965 to support poorer Americans without health insurance.

• Medicaid was funded by both federal and state governments and administered by states, leading to variation in quality and access across the country.

Civil Rights Legislation (Johnson’s Great Society)

• Johnson’s built on plans by Kennedy

• With strong leadership and pressure from the civil rights movement, the Civil Rights Act 1964 was passed.

• The Act outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, or sex in public places, ended legal segregation, allowed the Attorney General to enforce the law in federal courts and enabled the federal government to cut funding to states that did not comply

• 1964, the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the US Constitution abolished poll taxes, removing a barrier to voting.

• 1965 = the Voting Rights Act 1965 banned literacy tests and introduced federal oversight of voter registration

• The impact on voter registration was significant: Alabama: 18% → 54% and Florida: 51% → 54%

• These reforms marked a major breakthrough in civil rights for Black Americans.

• However, unrest continued, including the Watts Riots and the rise of the Black Power movement, which concerned Johnson.

Johnson’s Achievement in domestic policies

• One of the most significant periods of domestic reform in US history, with 435 bills submitted to Congress.

• Economic growth supported reform with GNP rising from 7% (1964) to 9% (1966) and the Revenue Act of 1964 cut taxes by $10 billion

• The Great Society expanded access to education (especially for low-income students), reduced poverty levels and ended legal racial discrimination through laws like the Civil Rights Act 1964

• However, inner cities declined as wealthier (mainly white) Americans moved to suburbs, cities became underfunded (with rising crime, drug use, and poverty) and Back Americans still faced social and economic discrimination despite legal equality

• 1966 midterm elections = Democrats lost seats in Congress, reducing support for Great Society reforms

• 1968 = Johnson announced he would not run for re-election, largely due to the Vietnam War, but also because the Great Society had not fully achieved goals like ending poverty

• The programme showed limits of large-scale federal spending; since 1968, no administration has attempted such extensive federal social reform programmes on the same scale

The Rise of the Silent Majority

• 1969 = Nixon addressed the nation on the Vietnam War, calling for “peace with honour” and shifting fighting to South Vietnamese forces.

• He appealed to the “silent majority,” arguing that anti-war protestors were a militant minority.

• A Gallup poll showed 77% support for Nixon’s Vietnam policy; over 300 Congressmen and 40 senators backed him.

• The “silent majority” referred mainly to working- and middle-class Americans (baby boomers) who valued traditional ideas like family, patriotism, and stability.

• Many were alarmed by 1960s protest movements, including student demonstrations and groups like the “Yippies”, especially during the 1968 Democratic Convention.

• The counterculture and women’s movement offended many particularly conservative Christian groups.

• This led to the rise of the “Christian Right,” which became a key support base for the Republican Party.

• In the South, resistance to civil rights changes boosted support for George Wallace, who ran in 1968, winning 9.9 million votes and 46 Electoral College votes.

• Wallace split the Democratic vote, helping Nixon win the 1968 election with 31 million votes.

• The silent majority became the core support base of the Republican Party in the 1970s–1980s and helped Nixon achieve a landslide victory in 1972.

The Role of Media in influencing Attitudes

• 1968 = most American households owned a television, making it the main source of news and a powerful influence on public opinion.

• Television played a key role in shaping views on the Vietnam War, showing graphic footage from the front lines.

• Walter Cronkite of CBS reported on the Tet Offensive in 1968 and concluded the war could not be won.

• A poll showed 70% of Americans trusted Cronkite more than any other public figure.

• Johnson believed losing Cronkite meant losing public support; soon after, he reduced bombing in Vietnam and in March 1968 announced he would not seek re-election.

• Television also reflected social tensions through shows like All in the Family (from 1969), featuring Archie Bunker, who represented conservative, working-class opposition to 1960s social change.

• The backlash against counterculture, student protest, and social change increased support for Republicans.

• Reagan was elected governor of California (1967–1975), reflecting this shift.

• Nixon was re-elected in 1972 by a landslide, supported by voters opposed to the counterculture.

Impact of the events in Vietnam and Kent State University

• The Vietnam War was the most divisive US domestic issue since the American Civil War.

• Johnson sent US ground troops in March 1965; by 1968, over 500,000 troops were deployed and thousands had died.

• The Draft (compulsory military service) increased fear and opposition, especially among young men.

• The Tet Offensive (1968) was a military failure for communists but convinced many Americans the war could not be won.

• Television coverage showing bombing and destruction increased public opposition to the war

• My Lai Massacre (1969) involved over 200 unarmed civilians killed; 25 officers were charged, but by1971 only William Calley was convicted.

• A poll showed over 70% of Americans disagreed with Calley’s conviction and Nixon reduced his sentence to house arrest, increasing protests.

• 1970 = Nixon announced the invasion of Cambodia and requested 150,000 more troops, sparking nationwide protests.

• The Kent State shootings (1970) saw 900 National Guard troops confront students; 28 guardsmen fired, killing 4 students.

• The shootings led to protests across the USA, with nearly 500 colleges disrupted or closed.

• 1971 = The New York Times published the Pentagon Papers, leaked by Daniel Ellsberg.

• The documents revealed the government had misled the public about the Gulf of Tonkin Incident.

• The Supreme Court of the United States allowed publication, further damaging trust in the government and intensifying opposition to the war.

Nixon’s Environmental Policies

• Nixon narrowly won the 1968 election against Hubert Humphrey (31.7m vs 31.2m votes), but gained broader support during his first term (1969–73).

• In domestic policy, Nixon criticised Johnson’s Great Society, arguing $1.4 billion had failed to bring stability; riots (1968) and unrest continued.

• Environmental policy included the National Environmental Policy Act (1970) created the Environmental Protection Agency

• Nixon limited its impact by appointing William P. Rogers

• Nixon faced a Democrat-controlled Congress (58/100 Senate seats, 243/435 House seats), so many laws were shaped by Congress rather than him.

Nixon’s “Southern Strategy”

• Appealed to white southern voters

• Opposed extending the Voting Rights Act 1965

• Sought to weaken the Housing Act 1968

• Tried (unsuccessfully) to appoint conservative southern judges

Nixon’s decline of radical groups

• Central Intelligence Agency launched Operation Chaos (1967)

• Federal Bureau of Investigation used COINTELPRO against radicals like the Black Panther Party

• 1972 = radical groups were in decline

Nixon’s economic problem

• “Nixon Recession” (1971–74) with rising inflation and unemployment

• 1971 = US left the Bretton Woods system, ending fixed exchange rates by 1972

• Despite this, Nixon remained popular due to foreign policy successes (relations with USSR and China) and support from the “silent majority.”

• Won a landslide victory in 1972 against George McGovern

• Presidency ended by the Watergate scandal, forcing his resignation in August 1974 (only US president to resign).

Nixon’s New Federalism

• Shift power back to states

• Introduced revenue-sharing (federal funds given to states to allocate)

Nixon’s domestic policies

• Family Assistance Plan: proposed $1,500–$2,000 annual income for a family of four

• Rejected by Senate (opposed by both conservatives and liberals)

• 1972 Educational Standards Act → affirmative action for women

• Philadelphia Plan → quotas for Black workers in federal contracts

• Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970) → improved worker safety and linked benefits to inflation