CLA revision (speech)

Pre- verbal stages of ydevelopment

1. Vegetative- sounds of discomfort or reflexive actions

2. Cooing- comfort sounds, vocal play using open-mouthed vowel sounds (6-8 weeks)

3. Babbling- repeated patterns of consonant and vowel sounds (6-9 months)

4. Proto-words- word-like vocalisations that have consistent meanings, sometimes called scribble talk e.g. dada/mama

Grammatical stages of development

1. Holophrastic/one-word stage- one word utterances (12-18 months) e.g. choccie

2. Two-word stage- two word utterances (18-24 months) e.g. want choccie

3. Telegraphic stage- three or more combinations- often lacks function words (24-36 months) e.g. daddy want choccie

4. Post-telegraphic stage- more grammatically complex sentences (36 months) e.g. daddy I want some choccie please

Halliday’s functions of language

Instrumental: fulfil a need

Regulatory: Influence the behaviour of others

Interactional: develop and maintain social relationships

Personal: convey individual opinions, ideas and personal identity

Representational: convey facts and information

Imaginative: create an imaginary world and may be seen in play predominantly

Heuristic: learn about the environment

Dore’s functions of language

Labelling- Naming a person, object or thing

Repeating- Repeating an adult word or utterance

Answering- Responding to an utterance of another speaker

Requesting action- Asking for something to be done for them

Calling- Getting attention by shouting

Greeting- Greeting someone or something

Protesting- Objecting to requests from others

Practicing- Using language when no adult is present

Categorising first words

In 1973, Katherine Nelson identified four categories for first words:

Recorded the first 50 words of 18 children

·      Naming (of things or people) (concrete nouns)

·      Actions/events (verbs)

·      Describing/modifying things

·      Personal/social words.

1. 60% were nouns (concrete)

2. Verbs were the second largest group.

3. Modifiers were third.

4. Personal and social words made up 8% of the results

Overextension (similar to overgeneralisation)

When a child uses a single word to refer to multiple objects or concepts, instead of using different words for different things

Under extension

Occurs when a child acquires a word for a particular thing and fails to extend it to other objects in the same category, using the word in a highly restricted and individualistic way.

Inflectional morphology

When a word is altered to make a new grammatical form (e.g. adding ‘s’ to make a plural or adding ‘ed’ to make the past tense).

WUG test

Psycholinguistics professor Jean Berko Gleason, who created the wug test in 1958, as a linguistics tool for testing how well children had learned the so-called “morphemes” associated with making nouns plural or verbs past tense.

This process was showing a child a series of fictional scenarios — like the first, one “wug” becoming two “wugs” — and then analyzing how well he or she pronounces the three “allomorph” sounds needed for plurality: “Z, “S” and “tZ.”

This test also gauges other types of morpheme learning, such as how well a student has truly learned the proper way to make verbs past tense or nouns possessive

Stages of Question development

STAGE 1. around 18 months: during the two-word stage, children start to use rising intonation to indicate a question e.g. ‘Go walk?’

STAGE 2. between ages of 2-3: In telegraphic talk, children continue to use rising intonation but also use Wh- words e.g. Where tractor? They use a wider range of interrogative pronouns such as why, when and how

STAGE 3. from age 3 upwards: Children will use subject-verb inversion e.g. Can I see it? Did she break it? Instead of - I can see it? They also start to use auxiliary verbs for the first time. e.g. What is Mummy doing?

Bellugis stages of negation

STAGE 1- around 18 months: Children use no/not to make things negative, normally at the beginning of the phrase rather than at the end e.g. ‘No bed!’

STAGE 2- between 2 & 3: Children start to use no and not in front of verbs too, such as ‘I no want juice.’ They develop the use of contracted negatives such as can’t, don’t. Sometimes they get mixed up with can’t and don’t.

STAGE 3- 3 years upwards: Children stop using no and not in the same way that they did in stage 1. They use can’t and don’t correctly and start using other negative contractions such as didn’t and won’t, but isn’t seems to develop slightly later

Nativism

• The idea that communication is innate and we all have the inherent ability to communicate

• Noah Chomsky key theorist- His language theory argues that this innate feature is activated during infancy by minimal environmental stimuli.

• LAD- Language acquisition device - a term given innate ability to contain linguistic information from birth. It is a tool found in the brain & it encodes the major skills involved in language learning, focusing on the encoding of grammar

• The critical period- the ability to acquire language based on age (early years)

• Universal grammar: a set of language rules that share common grammar principles that all children are born with an innate ability to acquire, develop & understand language

• Evidence- children always have the structure of a sentence in the correct order & children have been observed to pick up grammar & syntax without being taught vocally

  The Wug Test

  • The Wug Test is a well-known and highly regarded experiment conducted in the field of linguistics.

  • This ground-breaking study was specifically designed to delve into the intricate process of language acquisition in children and shed light on how they acquire and apply grammatical rules.

  • Chomsky's theory of language acquisition was supported by the results of the test. Children were presented with a made-up word, "wug," and then asked to pluralize it or use it in a sentence.

  • The results showed that even young children were able to apply grammatical rules to the new word, demonstrating their innate understanding of language structure.

  • This supported Chomsky's theory that children have an innate ability to acquire language and that grammar is not solely learned through imitation.

  Virtuous errors

  • Chomsky used the term 'virtuous error' to refer to non-standard forms which have their own internal logic that actually displays a greater intelligence than the ability to repeat words and phrases like a parrot the idea of 'virtuous error' is used as a justification of LAD.

  • A child makes errors in their grammar, inflections and syntax because they are attempting to apply the rules that they recognise from the language around them.

  • Evaluation- Too much emphasis on innate knowledge and does not adequately consider the role of environmental factors in language development

Behaviourism

Behaviourism

• The idea that communication is conditioned & shaped using environmental influences e.g. imitation, reinforcement & conditioning

• Skinner [1957] (behaviourist theorist) - suggested that children learn as a result of the consequences of their behaviour. If children experience a positive consequences after a behaviour, they are more likely to repeat that behaviour again in the future.

• Operant conditioning is whereby a behaviour’s learnt/influenced through consequence

• Repetition of an event is determined by positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment

  Positive reinforcement- where you gain something from the action e.g. reward for homework

  Negative reinforcement- when something is removed as a result of your action & makes you want to do it again e.g. do homework and no chores for a week

  Punishment- decreases the frequency of a behaviour e.g. detention for missed homework

• Evidence- Ambridge & Lieven argue that children can learn complex grammatical structures through pattern recognition e.g. picking up on past tense forms of irregular verbs through exposure, even without explicit teaching so is it shaped by our environment?

• Evaluation: Chomsky’s theory that children would never acquire the tools to learn language but it is actually influenced by our natural cognitive abilities.

Social Interactionism

Social Interactionism

• Jerome Bruner's theory (social interactionist theorist)- we develop three levels of learning. First, the enactive level encodes knowledge through direct actions. Next, the iconic level encodes idea in visual imagery. Then the third level encodes lessons symbolically, such as in languages.

• Lev Vygotsky's theory (social interactionist theorist)- believes that cognitive development is influenced by social and cultural factors

  Emphasises the significance of children conversing with more knowledgeable members of society. Higher mental abilities could only develop through interactions with more advanced others. His theory encourages collaborative and cooperative learning between children and teachers/peers. ​He suggested that play is particularly helpful for children’s language learning & can be an opportunity for MKOs to help children move into their ZPDs.

• MKO- A caregiver or ‘more knowledgeable other’ who needs to be present for child’s linguistics development

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) -refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

• LASS- The language acquisition support system. Network of adults that interact with a young child and in doing so supporting their language development

• Ritualised activities help children learn language as it require them to actively interact with others and helps them recognise patterns through repetition and makes it predictable so easy to learn e.g. bedtime, mealtime

  Evidence: ZPD Vygotsky’s study- showed that children could perform more complex tasks when assisted by an adult. Also real-world educational examples such as cooperative learning & scaffolding

• Evaluation: Too much emphasis on social interactionism and doesn’t consider the individual’s role enough. Learning is not only a social process but also a cognitive process. It also doesn’t apply to all cultures as his observation was based on his experiences

CDS (social interactionism)

• Child directed speech: the way a person’s voice changes & how they speak and how their characteristics change when speaking to an infant/toddler e.g. long pauses, alter pitch and tone to put emphasis on words, present tense (immediate, happening NOW), recasting (correcting the child in a non-invasive way), tag questions, scaffolding (building a conversation)

Cognitivism

• Creating knowledge & intelligence is an inherently active process as children investigate, experiment & build knowledge of the world. Children can only use language when they understand the meaning behind it.

• Piaget (cognitive theorist)- suggests that children's intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not only related to acquiring knowledge, children need to build or develop a mental model of their surrounding world. Understanding of abstract concepts e.g. morality

Stages of cognitive development:

Object Permeance: (this is the concept that an object exists out of the child's sight.)​

• Sensorimotor (under 2 yrs): Experience the physical world through the 5 senses & begins classifying the things in it; lexical choices, when they appear, tend to be concrete as opposed to abstract & using present tense constructions. The child’s object permeance will also develop

• Pre-occupational (2-7 years): This is when the language and motor skills of a child develop and become more competent. Language is egocentric so it is either focused on the child or used by the child whilst they are alone.​ They begin to think about non-physical concepts.

• Concrete operational (7-11 years): this is the stage where children begin thinking totally logically about concrete events. e.g. height, weight and volume

• Formal operational (11+ years): where a child's abstract reasoning skills develop and they’re able to solve problems

This approach suggests that speech & understanding is that our metal processes play a role in language development according to this approach, language is deeply interconnected with cognitive development. As children develop more complex thought processes, this is reflected in their use of language.

Evidence

Ego-centric speech

• As described by Piaget, egocentric speech is associated with immaturity, a sign that a child is at the point in his or her development where he or she has not yet learned how to interact with others. Therefore, the tendency towards egocentric speech would fade away as the child increased in maturity.

Berko and Brown [1960] The ‘fis’ phenomenon (test)

• ‘Fis’ phenomenon is a phenomenon of child language acquisition that demonstrates that perception of phonemes occurs earlier than the ability of the child to produce those phonemes.

• A child referred to his inflatable plastic fish as a ‘fis’. However, when adults asked him, “Is this your ‘fis’?” he rejected the statement. When he was asked, “Is this your fish?” he responded, “Yes, my ‘fis’.”

• This shows that although the child could not produce the phoneme, he could perceive it as being different from the phoneme /s/.

• In some cases, the sounds produced by the child are actually acoustically different, but not significantly enough for others to distinguish since the language in question does not make such contrasts.

• Short summary:

  - Child called his plastic fish "fis" and when corrected he refused to correct his pronunciation
  - Only satisfied when the adult called it "fis"
  It shows young children can understand more than they can say which shows that internal language is ahead of external language

• Evaluation: Too rigid & deterministic, it neglects individual differences & generalises people’s experiences

Childrens play- Lev Vygotsky

Deemed that children’s play was linked to both cognitive and social development, he said young children used props as ‘pivots’ to support their play, but when older, used their imagination instead

Childrens play- Catherine Garvey

• Studied pairs of children; noted they adopted role play which mirrored their own experiences; termed pretend play- fulfils Halliday’s imaginative language function

Common phonological errors- Deletion

In child speech, deletion may refer to leaving out sounds or syllables in words, like saying "nana" instead of "banana" or "top" instead of "stop."

Common phonological errors- Substitution

Substitution in child speech refers to the process where a child replaces one sound or word with another. It is a common part of language development in young children.

Common phonological errors- Addition

Addition in child-directed speech phonology refers to the process where extra sounds are inserted into a child's speech, often to simplify pronunciation or aid in learning. It is a common feature in early language development.

Common phonological errors- Assimilation

Assimilation in child speech phonology is when a sound becomes more like a neighboring sound in a word due to the influence of that sound. It is a common phonological process in children's language development. 

Common phonological errors- Reduplication

Reduplication is a morphological process where all or part of a word is repeated to convey a specific meaning, often used in linguistics to show intensity, plurality, or continuity.

It creates a new word with a modified meaning. Reduplication is often used for emphasis, plurality, or to indicate a change in degree. For example, "bye-bye," "boo-boo," "night-night."

Common phonological errors- Consonant Cluster Reductions

Consonant Cluster Reductions refer to the process of simplifying a sequence of consonants in a word by omitting or modifying some of the consonants. It is a common phonological phenomenon in language.

Morpheme

The smallest meaningful unit of language. It can be a word or part of a word that carries meaning. For example, "un-" in "unhappiness" is a morpheme indicating negation.

Free Morpheme

A morpheme that can stand alone as a word. For example, "cat," "jump," "happy."

Bound Morpheme

A morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word and must be attached to a free morpheme to convey meaning. For example, the "-ed" in "jumped," indicating past tense.

Inflectional Morpheme

• A bound morpheme that modifies a word's tense, aspect, number, or possession without changing its basic meaning or word class. For example, the "-s" in "cats," indicating plural.

Derivational Morpheme

A bound morpheme that changes the meaning or word class of a root or stem to which it's attached. For example, the "-er" in "teach-er," changing the verb "teach" into a noun.

Affix

A morpheme attached to a word stem to modify its meaning or create a new word. Affixes include prefixes (attached to the beginning), suffixes (attached to the end), and infixes (inserted within the stem).

Affixation

The process of adding affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes) to a base or root word to create new words or modify existing ones. Affixation is a common morphological process in English and other languages.

Prefix

An affix attached to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning or create a new word. For example, "un-" in "undo," "re-" in "rewrite."

Suffix

An affix attached to the end of a word to modify its meaning or create a new word. For example, "-ment" in "enjoyment," "-ly" in "quickly."

Infix

An affix inserted within a word stem or base to create a new word or modify its meaning. In English, infixation is relatively rare compared to prefixation and suffixation. An example from linguistics humor is the infix "bloody" in "unbloodybelievable."

Compounding

The process of combining two or more words to create a new word with a single meaning. For example, "blackboard," "sunglasses."

Blending

The process of combining parts of two or more words to create a new word whose meaning is often a blend of the original words. For example, "brunch" (breakfast + lunch), "smog" (smoke + fog).

Conversion (Zero Derivation)

The process of changing the word class or grammatical function of a word without adding any affixes. For example, "to butter" (verb) from "butter" (noun), "to text" (verb) from "text" (noun).

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning. For example, the sounds /p/ and /b/ in the words "pat" and "bat" represent different phonemes.

Vowel Phonemes

Vowel phonemes are sounds produced with an open vocal tract and are typically voiced. In English, vowel phonemes include sounds like /iː/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /uː/, /eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/, /əʊ/, /aʊ/, /ɪə/, /eə/, /ʊə/.

Consonant Phonemes

Consonant phonemes are sounds produced with either partial or complete closure or constriction in the vocal tract. In English, consonant phonemes include sounds like /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /h/, /w/, /j/, /l/, /r/.

Plosives

Plosives, also known as stops, are consonant sounds produced by briefly stopping the airflow in the vocal tract and then releasing it. They are characterized by a sudden release of air after complete closure. In English, there are three primary plosive phonemes:

1. /p/: Voiceless bilabial plosive (e.g., "pat").

2. /t/: Voiceless alveolar plosive (e.g., "top").

3. /k/: Voiceless velar plosive (e.g., "cat").

Fricatives

Fricatives are consonant sounds produced by forcing air through a narrow channel in the vocal tract, creating friction or turbulence. Unlike plosives, which involve a complete closure of the vocal tract, fricatives allow air to pass through a narrow gap. In English, there are several fricative phonemes:

1. /f/: Voiceless labiodental fricative (e.g., "fish").

2. /v/: Voiced labiodental fricative (e.g., "van").

3. /θ/: Voiceless dental fricative (e.g., "think").

4. /ð/: Voiced dental fricative (e.g., "this").

5. /s/: Voiceless alveolar fricative (e.g., "snake").

6. /z/: Voiced alveolar fricative (e.g., "zip").

7. /ʃ/: Voiceless postalveolar fricative (e.g., "ship").

8. /ʒ/: Voiced postalveolar fricative (e.g., "measure").

Affricates

Affricates are consonant sounds that begin as stops (plosives) and then release into fricatives. They combine the characteristics of both plosives and fricatives. In English, the two primary affricate phonemes are:

1. /tʃ/: Voiceless postalveolar affricate (e.g., "church").

2. /dʒ/: Voiced postalveolar affricate (e.g., "judge").

Grunwell’s Sequence of Phoneme Acquisition

Grunwell's sequence of phoneme acquisition is a framework proposed by G. R. Grunwell in the 1980s. It outlines a general order in which children typically acquire phonemes in their native language during the early stages of language development. While the sequence may vary slightly across individuals and languages, it provides insights into the typical progression of phoneme acquisition

1. Early Acquisitions:

   • Children typically acquire early-developing consonants and vowels first. These include sounds that are easier to produce due to their simple articulatory gestures and acoustic properties.

   • Examples of early-acquired consonants include /m/, /b/, /p/, /d/, /n/, and /w/.

   • Examples of early-acquired vowels include central vowels such as /ə/ and back vowels such as /u/.

2. Middle Acquisitions:

   • As children's speech abilities develop, they begin to acquire consonants and vowels that are slightly more complex in terms of articulation and acoustic properties.

   • Examples of middle-acquired consonants include /t/, /g/, /k/, /s/, and /l/.

   • Examples of middle-acquired vowels may include front vowels such as /i/ and /ɛ/.

3. Late Acquisitions:

   • Later in development, children typically acquire consonants and vowels that are more complex or less frequent in the language.

   • Examples of late-acquired consonants include affricates (/tʃ/, /dʒ/), fricatives (/ʃ/, /ʒ/, /θ/, /ð/), and liquids (/r/, /l/).

   • Examples of late-acquired vowels may include diphthongs and rhotic vowels (/aɪ/, /aʊ/, /ɔɪ/, /ɝ/).

Resorclas Overextensions

Rescorla's overextensions refer to a phenomenon observed in child language acquisition where children use words in a broader or more general sense than adults typically do. These overextensions involve applying a word to refer to a wider range of objects, actions, or concepts than its conventional meaning would suggest.

For example, a child might use the word "dog" to refer not only to actual dogs but also to other four-legged animals or even to inanimate objects that bear some resemblance to a dog, such as a stuffed toy or a picture of a dog.

Rescorla's research on overextensions contributed to our understanding of semantic development in children and provided insights into how children form and expand their vocabulary. Overextensions can occur during the early stages of language development as children attempt to make sense of the world around them and communicate with limited linguistic resources.

Rescorla identified several types of overextensions, including:

1. Categorical Overextensions:

   • The child extends the meaning of a word to items that are perceptually or functionally similar to the original referent. For example, using the word "car" to refer to all vehicles, including trucks and buses.

2. Analogical Overextensions:

   • The child extends the meaning of a word based on perceptual or functional similarities with the original referent. For example, using the word "ball" to refer to objects that are round and can be bounced, such as an orange or a balloon.

3. Predicate Overextensions:

   • The child extends the meaning of a word based on shared properties or actions. For example, using the word "drink" to refer not only to consuming liquids but also to pouring or spilling liquids.

Rescorla's research highlighted the complexity of early language development and the dynamic nature of children's semantic representations. Overextensions are considered a normal and even necessary part of language acquisition, reflecting children's active efforts to learn and use language creatively. However, they tend to decrease as children's language skills mature and their understanding of word meanings becomes more refined.

Word Classes

1. Nouns:

   • Words that represent people, places, things, or ideas. Nouns can be concrete (e.g., "dog," "table") or abstract (e.g., "love," "happiness").

2. Verbs:

   • Words that express actions, events, or states of being. Verbs can be action verbs (e.g., "run," "eat"), linking verbs (e.g., "is," "become"), or helping verbs (e.g., "can," "will").

3. Adjectives:

   • Words that modify or describe nouns or pronouns by providing more information about their qualities or characteristics. Adjectives answer questions like "What kind?" or "Which one?" (e.g., "big," "red").

4. Adverbs:

   • Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs by providing more information about how, when, where, or to what extent something happens. Adverbs often end in "-ly" (e.g., "quickly," "often").

5. Pronouns:

   • Words used in place of nouns to avoid repetition. Pronouns can refer to people (e.g., "he," "she"), objects (e.g., "it"), or concepts (e.g., "they," "everyone").

6. Prepositions:

   • Words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence. Prepositions indicate location (e.g., "in," "on"), time (e.g., "before," "after"), or direction (e.g., "toward," "away from").

7. Conjunctions:

   • Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. Conjunctions can be coordinating (e.g., "and," "but"), subordinating (e.g., "because," "although"), or correlative (e.g., "either...or," "neither...nor").

8. Determiners:

   • Words that come before nouns to provide information about them, such as quantity (e.g., "some," "many"), definiteness (e.g., "the," "a"), or possession (e.g., "my," "his").

9. Interjections:

   • Words or phrases that express strong emotions or reactions and are often used independently in a sentence. Interjections can convey surprise (e.g., "Wow!"), excitement (e.g., "Yay!"), or pain (e.g., "Ouch!").

Syntactic Parallelism

• Syntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of similar syntactic structures or patterns within a sentence or across sentences. It involves maintaining a consistent grammatical structure for emphasis, rhythm, or clarity. For example:

  • "She likes swimming, hiking, and cycling." (parallel structure with gerunds)

  • "The cat chased the mouse, the dog chased the squirrel, and the bird chased the butterfly." (parallel structure with coordinated clauses)

Ellipsis

• Ellipsis involves the omission of one or more words that are understood in the context of the sentence. It is commonly used to avoid repetition or to create a more concise expression. For example:

  • "John can play the guitar; Mary, the piano." (ellipsis of "can play")

  • "I like chocolate; she, vanilla." (ellipsis of "likes")

Anaphora and Cataphora:

Anaphora refers to the use of a word or phrase to refer back to a previously mentioned word or phrase. Cataphora, on the other hand, refers to the use of a word or phrase to refer forward to a subsequent word or phrase. For example:

• "He loves basketball. The sport is his passion." (anaphora with "the sport")

• "Before she left, Sarah said goodbye. She hugged her friends tightly." (cataphora with "she")

Hyperbole:

• Hyperbole involves the use of exaggerated language or statements to create emphasis or effect. It is often used for rhetorical purposes or to evoke strong emotions. For example:

  • "I've told you a million times!" (exaggeration of frequency)

  • "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse!" (exaggeration of hunger)

Metaphor & Similie

• Metaphor involves the comparison of two unlike things by stating that one thing is another. Simile also involves comparison but typically uses "like" or "as" to make the comparison explicit. For example:

  • Metaphor: "Time is a thief." (comparison of time to a thief)

  • Simile: "Her eyes sparkled like diamonds." (comparison of eyes to diamonds using "like")

Onomatopoeia

• Onomatopoeia refers to words that imitate or suggest the sound they describe. These words often convey sensory experiences and add vividness to language. For example:

  • "The clock ticked loudly." (imitation of the sound of a clock)

  • "The bees buzzed around the flowers." (imitation of the sound of bees)

Polysyndeton and Aysyndeton

• Polysyndeton involves the use of multiple conjunctions (such as "and," "or," "but") in close succession to create emphasis or rhythm. Asyndeton, on the other hand, involves the omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses for a similar effect. For example:

  • Polysyndeton: "They sang and danced and laughed and celebrated."

  • Asyndeton: "He came, he saw, he conquered."

Euphimisms

Euphemisms are indirect or mild expressions used to replace harsh or unpleasant words or phrases. Children may use euphemisms as a way to soften the impact of their speech or to navigate sensitive topics. For example, a child might say "passed away" instead of "died."

Oxymoron

• An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory terms to create a paradoxical effect. Despite the apparent contradiction, oxymorons are used to convey complex meanings or highlight contrasts. For example:

  • "Bittersweet"

  • "Jumbo shrimp"

Metonymy

• Metonymy involves using a word or phrase to represent something closely associated with it. Children may use metonymy in their speech as a form of shorthand or to express familiarity with certain concepts. For example, a child might refer to the teacher as "the classroom boss."

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a specific type of metonymy where a part of something is used to represent the whole or vice versa. Children may use synecdoche in their speech to simplify complex ideas or to convey a sense of inclusivity. For example, a child might refer to all animals as "doggy."

Repetition

• Children often use repetition in their speech as a way to emphasize a point, express excitement, or reinforce their message. Repetition may involve repeating words, phrases, or sounds multiple times within a sentence or across sentences.

Neologisms

Neologisms are newly coined words or expressions that have not yet been widely adopted into the language. Children may create neologisms in their speech as they experiment with language and attempt to convey novel ideas or concepts.

Code Switching

Code-switching involves alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a single conversation or sentence. Children who are bilingual or exposed to multiple languages may engage in code-switching as they navigate different linguistic environments and social contexts.

Conversational Fillers:

Conversational fillers are words or phrases used by speakers to fill pauses or hesitation in speech. Children may use fillers such as "um," "uh," "like," or "you know" as they organize their thoughts or search for the right words.

Intensifiers

Intensifiers are words or phrases that enhance the meaning or emphasis of another word. Children may use intensifiers such as "very," "really," or "super" to express strong feelings or opinions. For example, "I'm very hungry" or "That's really cool!"

Dimunitives

• Diminutives are suffixes or endings added to words to indicate smallness, affection, or familiarity. Children may use diminutives in their speech to refer to objects or people in a cute or endearing way. For example, "doggy" for "dog" or "blankie" for "blanket."

Slang & Jargon

Slang refers to informal words or expressions that are not considered part of standard language but are commonly used in informal speech, especially among peers. Children may use slang terms to establish social identity or to express camaraderie with friends. Jargon, on the other hand, refers to specialized vocabulary used within specific groups or communities. Children may adopt jargon related to hobbies, interests, or activities they are passionate about.

Narrative Devices

• Narrative devices such as foreshadowing, flashbacks, or cliffhangers may appear in children's storytelling or recounting of events. These devices help children structure their narratives, create suspense, and engage their audience.

Registers and Speech Styles:

• Children may adjust their speech register or style based on the social context, audience, or topic of conversation. For example, they may use more formal language when speaking to adults or teachers and adopt a more casual tone when talking to peers or siblings.

Self-Repair

Self-repair refers to the process of correcting errors or revising speech during conversation. Children may engage in self-repair by repeating or rephrasing their statements to clarify meaning or correct mistakes. (may be similar to a false start)

Features of Egocentric speech

Egocentric speech, as described by Jean Piaget in his theory of cognitive development, refers to the tendency of young children to engage in speech that is primarily self-directed and lacks consideration for the listener's perspective. Piaget observed that during the preoperational stage of cognitive development (approximately ages 2 to 7), children often exhibit egocentric speech as they construct their understanding of the world.

Here are some key features of egocentric speech according to Piaget's theory:

1. Self-Directed:

   • Egocentric speech is primarily directed towards the self. Children may talk aloud to themselves while playing, thinking out loud, or narrating their actions without necessarily expecting a response from others.

2. Lack of Audience Awareness:

   • Children engaging in egocentric speech typically show limited awareness of the listener's perspective. They may assume that others share their knowledge or thoughts and may not adjust their speech based on the listener's understanding.

3. Monologue-Like:

   • Egocentric speech often takes the form of monologues rather than dialogues. Children may engage in extended verbal expressions without actively soliciting input or feedback from others.

4. Use of Animistic Language:

   • Children may anthropomorphize objects or attribute human-like qualities to inanimate objects, reflecting their egocentric perspective. For example, a child might say, "The sun is smiling at me," attributing emotions or intentions to natural phenomena.

5. Difficulty in Taking the Perspective of Others:

   • Egocentric speech reflects children's limited ability to take the perspective of others or understand that different people may have different thoughts, beliefs, or knowledge. They may assume that others see the world exactly as they do.

6. Decreases with Age:

   • According to Piaget, egocentric speech tends to decrease as children progress through cognitive development stages and gain a greater understanding of others' perspectives. As children develop more sophisticated social and cognitive skills, they become better able to engage in reciprocal communication and consider the viewpoints of others.

It's important to note that while Piaget emphasized egocentric speech as a characteristic of the preoperational stage, subsequent research has provided nuanced understandings of children's communication abilities. Egocentric speech is now viewed as one aspect of children's language development, influenced by both cognitive and social factors, rather than a static phenomenon confined to a specific developmental stage.

virtuous errors

The concept of "virtuous error" in child language development refers to errors or misconceptions made by children during the process of language acquisition that reflect underlying cognitive processes or attempts to apply language rules creatively. These errors are considered "virtuous" because they demonstrate active engagement with language and represent steps toward mastery rather than simple mistakes. Here's a closer look at virtuous errors in child language:

1. Creative Rule Application:

   • Virtuous errors often occur when children apply language rules in creative or innovative ways, even if the resulting utterance is not grammatically correct according to adult standards. These errors demonstrate children's active experimentation with language rules and their attempts to make sense of linguistic patterns.

2. Overgeneralization:

   • One common type of virtuous error involves overgeneralization, where children apply a language rule too broadly. For example, a child might say "goed" instead of "went" based on the regular past tense rule in English. While "goed" is not correct in standard English, the error reflects the child's understanding of past tense formation.

3. Semantic Overextension:

   • Virtuous errors can also occur in semantic domains, particularly in vocabulary acquisition. Children may extend the meaning of a word beyond its conventional boundaries based on perceived similarities or associations. For example, a child might use the word "dog" to refer to all four-legged animals, demonstrating an understanding of categorical relationships.

4. Creative Word Formation:

   • Children may engage in virtuous errors when forming new words or expressions through blending, compounding, or other morphological processes. While the resulting words may not exist in the adult lexicon, they demonstrate children's active engagement with language structure and their attempts to express novel ideas.

5. Exploratory Language Use:

   • Virtuous errors are often indicative of children's exploratory language use as they navigate the complexities of linguistic systems. These errors provide valuable insights into children's cognitive processes, problem-solving strategies, and evolving linguistic competence.

6. Transient Nature:

   • Virtuous errors are typically transient and tend to diminish as children refine their language skills and gain exposure to adult models of language. As children receive corrective feedback and learn from their linguistic environment, they gradually converge towards adult-like language patterns.

Understanding virtuous errors in child language development highlights the active role of children in shaping their linguistic abilities and the dynamic nature of language acquisition. Instead of viewing errors as impediments to language learning, virtuous errors are seen as integral to the process of mastering language.

Lexical and syntactical (grammatical) stages of development

In child language development, both lexical (vocabulary) and grammatical (syntax) stages play crucial roles in shaping children's linguistic abilities. These stages represent distinct aspects of language acquisition and typically unfold in a predictable sequence as children progress through different developmental milestones. Here's an overview of the lexical and grammatical stages of child language speech:

Lexical Stages:

1. Prelinguistic Stage (0-12 Months):

   • In the prelinguistic stage, infants communicate primarily through nonverbal means such as crying, babbling, and gesturing. While they do not produce meaningful words, they begin to attend to language sounds and engage in vocal play.

2. Holophrastic Stage (12-18 Months):

   • During the holophrastic stage, children begin to produce their first words, typically around their first birthday. These early words, known as holophrases, stand for whole phrases or sentences and convey a range of meanings. For example, "milk" might mean "I want milk," "more milk," or "look, there's milk."

3. Telegraphic Stage (18-24 Months):

   • In the telegraphic stage, children start combining words to form short, two-word utterances known as telegraphic speech. These utterances typically consist of content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and omit function words (articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs). For example, "Mommy eat" or "Big doggie."

4. Post telegraphic stage, Vocabulary Explosion (24 Months and Beyond):

   • Around the age of two, children experience a vocabulary explosion, rapidly acquiring new words at an accelerated rate. Their vocabulary expands to include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other word classes, allowing them to express a wide range of concepts and ideas.

Grammatical Stages:

1. Early Grammatical Development (24-36 Months):

   • During early grammatical development, children begin to demonstrate an understanding of basic grammatical structures and rules. They acquire morphological markers such as plurals ("-s"), past tense ("-ed"), and present progressive ("-ing"), although their usage may be inconsistent or overgeneralized.

2. Emergence of Simple Sentences (36-48 Months):

   • In this stage, children start constructing simple sentences with subject-verb-object (SVO) word order and basic syntactic structures. They use conjunctions such as "and" and "but" to connect ideas and may begin to produce questions using inversion or rising intonation.

3. Expansion of Sentence Complexity (48 Months and Beyond):

   • As children progress through preschool and early school years, they continue to expand their syntactic repertoire and produce increasingly complex sentences. They incorporate subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and embedded phrases to convey more nuanced meanings and relationships between ideas.

4. Mastery of Syntax (School-Age Years):

   • By the time children reach school age, they have typically mastered the basic syntactic structures of their native language. They demonstrate greater proficiency in sentence construction, sentence combining, and narrative discourse, allowing them to communicate effectively in a variety of contexts.

These lexical and grammatical stages of development provide a framework for understanding the progression of child language acquisition from early vocalizations and single words to more sophisticated language production and comprehension. While the exact timing and sequence of development may vary across individuals, these stages reflect the general trajectory of language development in typically developing children.

Politeness & face needs

• Politeness in Child Language:

  • Children learn politeness strategies from an early age through social interaction and observation of adult language behavior.

  • Politeness in child language involves using language and nonverbal cues to show respect, consideration, and sensitivity towards others' feelings and social expectations.

• Awareness of Face Needs:

  • Face needs refer to individuals' desires to maintain a positive self-image and to uphold social harmony in communication.

  • Children demonstrate an emerging awareness of face needs as they learn to navigate social interactions and negotiate interpersonal relationships.

• Politeness Strategies in Child Language:

  • Positive Politeness: Children may use positive politeness strategies to emphasize closeness and solidarity with others. This includes using expressions of appreciation, compliments, and expressions of solidarity.

  • Negative Politeness: Children may use negative politeness strategies to avoid imposing on others or intruding on their autonomy. This includes using indirect requests, apologies, and expressions of deference.

  • Off-Record Politeness: Children may employ off-record politeness strategies to convey politeness indirectly or implicitly, often through hints, suggestions, or nonverbal cues.

• Brown and Levinson's Politeness Theory:

  • Brown and Levinson proposed a sociolinguistic theory of politeness that distinguishes between positive and negative face needs.

  • Positive face refers to the desire for approval, recognition, and inclusion, while negative face refers to the desire for autonomy, freedom, and independence.

  • According to Brown and Levinson, politeness strategies are employed to mitigate threats to positive and negative face, such as impositions or threats to autonomy.

  • Children gradually develop an understanding of politeness norms and employ politeness strategies based on their awareness of face needs and social context.

• Critiques and Extensions of Politeness Theory:

  • Critics of Brown and Levinson's theory argue that politeness is context-dependent and culturally variable, and that the theory may not fully account for diverse politeness norms across cultures and social contexts.

  • Extensions of politeness theory consider additional factors such as power dynamics, social distance, and relational factors in politeness behavior.

  • Children's politeness development is influenced by socialization processes, cultural norms, and individual differences in temperament and social cognition.

Understanding politeness and awareness of face needs in child language development provides insight into children's social and communicative competence as they learn to navigate the complexities of social interaction and language use.

Evaluate the importance of caregiver interactions

• Language Acquisition:

  • Caregiver interactions in CDS facilitate language learning through rich language input and responsive communication.

  • Children exposed to frequent and responsive CDS tend to achieve language milestones earlier and demonstrate greater proficiency.

• Socio-Emotional Development:

  • CDS fosters secure attachment and emotional security through warm, responsive interactions.

  • It promotes empathy, social skills, and emotional regulation by providing opportunities for emotional expression and social bonding.

• Cognitive Growth:

  • CDS stimulates cognitive development by engaging children in meaningful communication and problem-solving activities.

  • It supports cognitive flexibility, creativity, and higher-order thinking skills through conversational exchanges and exploratory learning.

• Cultural Transmission:

  • Caregiver interactions in CDS transmit cultural values, beliefs, and traditions to children.

  • Exposure to culturally relevant stories and narratives in CDS fosters cultural identity and appreciation for diversity.

  • Turn-Taking: Caregiver interactions in CDS often exhibit turn-taking patterns where caregivers and children alternate speaking roles. Caregivers may pause or use turn-yielding cues to invite child participation, fostering conversational reciprocity.

  • Topic Management: Caregivers typically manage topics in CDS by selecting familiar and age-appropriate topics based on children's interests and developmental level. They may use repetition, expansion, or paraphrasing to maintain coherence and engagement in the conversation.

  • Narrative Structure: CDS often includes narrative elements such as storytelling, recounting experiences, and sharing personal anecdotes. Caregivers structure narratives with clear beginnings, middles, and ends, using temporal markers and cohesive devices to organize events

In summary, caregiver interactions in CDS are essential for supporting children's language, socio-emotional, cognitive, and cultural development, laying the foundation for lifelong learning and well-being.

Discourse and conversational features 

• Discourse Features:

  • Turn-Taking: Examining how participants in caregiver-child interactions take turns in speaking, considering interruptions, overlaps, and pauses.

  • Topic Management: Analyzing how caregivers introduce, maintain, and transition between topics during conversations with children, observing topic shifts and topic coherence.

  • Narrative Structure: Identifying narrative elements in caregiver-child interactions, such as story beginnings, plot development, and resolution, and evaluating the use of cohesive devices and temporal markers.

• Conversational Features:

  • Phatic Communication: Recognizing the use of phatic expressions (e.g., greetings, small talk) to establish rapport and maintain social relationships in caregiver-child interactions.

  • Repair Strategies: Examining how caregivers and children handle communication breakdowns and repair errors in speech, including self-repair, other-repair, and repetition.

  • Back-Channelling: Analyzing listeners' responses (e.g., nods, verbal affirmations) to signal understanding and engagement during conversational exchanges, assessing the role of back-channelling in promoting conversational flow.

  • Adjacency Pairs: Identifying pairs of utterances that are closely related in caregiver-child interactions, such as question-answer sequences or greeting-response exchanges, and examining how adjacency pairs contribute to conversation structure and coherence.

Pragmatics & social interactions

• Pragmatic Competence:

  • Understanding of pragmatic principles governing language use in social contexts.

  • Ability to interpret and produce language appropriately according to situational and social factors.

• Speech Acts:

  • Knowledge of how language functions to perform different speech acts (requests, apologies, compliments) in social interaction.

  • Understanding of the illocutionary force and perlocutionary effect of speech acts on interlocutors.

• Politeness Strategies:

  • Awareness of politeness strategies (positive politeness, negative politeness) used to mitigate face threats and maintain social harmony.

  • Ability to employ politeness markers (please, thank you) and mitigation strategies (indirect requests) in communicative exchanges.

• Conversational Maxims:

  • Understanding of Grice's conversational maxims (quantity, quality, relation, manner) and their role in cooperative communication.

  • Application of conversational maxims to interpret implicatures and infer speaker meaning in conversation.

• Pragmatic Markers:

  • Recognition of pragmatic markers (well, you know, I mean) used to signal discourse functions (hesitation, emphasis, clarification) in conversation.

  • Analysis of how pragmatic markers contribute to discourse coherence and interactional dynamics.

• Turn-Taking and Repair:

  • Understanding of turn-taking mechanisms (turn-yielding cues, turn-taking signals) in conversation and their role in managing conversational flow.

  • Knowledge of repair strategies (self-repair, other-repair) used to address communication breakdowns and resolve misunderstandings in interaction.

• Conversational Implicature:

  • Ability to infer implied meaning and interpret conversational implicatures based on context, inference, and shared knowledge.

  • Analysis of how conversational implicatures contribute to indirect communication and pragmatic enrichment in discourse.

• Cross-Cultural Pragmatics:

  • Recognition of cultural variations in pragmatic norms and communicative styles across different speech communities.

  • Understanding of how cultural context influences pragmatic interpretation and communicative behavior in intercultural communication.

ALL THEORISTS FOR CHILD SPEECH

1. Jean Piaget:

   • Known for his theory of cognitive development, Piaget proposed that children progress through distinct stages of intellectual development, which influence their language acquisition abilities.

2. Lev Vygotsky:

   • Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in children's cognitive development, including language acquisition. He introduced concepts such as the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and the importance of scaffolding in learning.

3. B.F. Skinner:

   • As a behaviorist, Skinner proposed the theory of operant conditioning, which suggests that language is acquired through reinforcement and shaping of linguistic behaviors. He emphasized the role of environmental stimuli in language development.

4. Noam Chomsky:

   • Chomsky's nativist theory posits that language acquisition is facilitated by an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that enables children to rapidly acquire language through exposure to linguistic input. He proposed the existence of a universal grammar underlying all human languages.

5. Jerome Bruner:

   • Bruner's theory of language acquisition emphasizes the importance of social interaction and language scaffolding in children's cognitive development. He introduced the concept of language acquisition support system (LASS) to describe the role of caregivers and peers in language learning.

6. Michael Halliday:

   • Halliday's systemic functional linguistics (SFL) theory focuses on the functional aspects of language and proposes that language serves social and communicative functions. He developed the concept of language functions (e.g., ideational, interpersonal, textual) and language metafunctions.

7. Katherine Nelson:

   • Nelson's theory of language development emphasizes the role of social interaction, context, and cognitive processes in children's language acquisition. She introduced the concept of "protoconversations" to describe early communicative exchanges between infants and caregivers.

8. Roger Brown:

   • Brown's research on language development contributed to our understanding of the stages of language acquisition in children, including morphological and syntactic milestones. He documented the progression of language development in his seminal work "A First Language."