Linguistics year 2

descriptivist

looking at language and describing what's happening to it , non-judgemental approach, seek to understand why and how language is changing - David crystal

prescriptivist

prescribe how ppl should speak, opinionated view, promotes standard English - lin truss, humphries

accent

regional

dialect

types of communication within an accent

variety

a form of language - american english, jamaican english

Adjective category

Comparative
Superlative

Verb - be

Was
Is
Went
Will

Verb theory in a sentence

Auxiliary verb is always followed by lexical verb

In verb theory- if there is only one verb in the sentence

This is a lexical verb

Auxiliary verb examples

\
\
can have multiple of these in a sentence

can , have , will, did , be , do have

are closed class

Lexical verb examples

be do have

often only 1 of these in a sentence

Argument

Fulfil the meaning of the action, process, state occurring

Eg- he newspaper they him bike (occurring at start of sentence)

Adverbials and adjuncts

Often about where, when, how, why
Eg at the shop, for his birthday

SLI

Specific Language Impairment

DLD- Developmental Language Disorder signs

Few morphemes used
Use a lot of fillers
Fairly grammatically correct

NICE - a way to identify auxiliary verbs

Negation - not

Inversion - has does

Code - have does should

Emphasis- have, is should must

Verb group aka

Predicatior

Predicator consists of

One verb- simple predicator
Several verbs- complex predicator

Finite verb

The first verb

In past or present tense

Limited in tense person and number

Eg modal verb

Non finite verb forms - Plain infinitive-

he will BUY coffee- bare form of the verb

\

First verb in predicator tense

Is either in present or past tense

A form of verb be

Is

Form of verb do

Does

tense verb

Related to the location of the event in time

Present and past

Aspect verb

Relates to the temporal unfolding/internal structure of the event

Types : present simple, past simple, perfect and progressive

created by adding in auxiliary verb

Modal verb

Aka mood- relates to the attitude/ability/dust of the speaker towards the event

created by adding in auxiliary verbs

Voice verb

Describes the relationship between the participants and the verb

Eg active and passive sentences

created by adding in auciliary verbs

Tense verb is created by

marked by the word-form of the verb (morphology), i.e. present/past

Aspect, modality, voice Verbs are created by

adding in auxiliary verbs

Present simple tense -

used for truth of repeated actions

\

Past simple tense

Used for completed action in a time before now

* verb are put into pat for with no auxiliaries added

Perfect Aspect

Have + past principle

Eg i have sung a song - present perfect

Eg i had sung a song- past perfect

Progressive aspect

Is the continuous aspect

Be + ing form

Present progressive - i am/are speaking

Past progressive - i was/were watching

Passive aspect

Be + past principle

* passive = contrasted as something happens to something/one
* Active= someone acting on something/one

Rule for checking how many clauses are in a sentence

Count the number of lexical verbs

Coordinating clauses

Are joined with a coordinating conjunction

FANBOYS

And is most commonly use in aphasia patients

* have a lexical verb in each clause

Subordinate clause

Often begin with a subordinating conjunction eg because, when, while, that

Recursive

Units are embedded within units that are embedded within units within units

\

3 types of subordinate clauses

Clauses with subordinating conjunctions

Non finite clauses

Relative clauses

* all must have a verb within each clause

Non finite clause

Bare (plain) infinitive = take

To invite = to take

Present participle- Ing form = taking

Past participle- en form- taken

Relative clauses

Provide information about a person/ thing in a sentence

Including relative pronouns and/or verb

Who which that when where whose

\
* normal relative clause - includes noun
* Nominal relative clause - has no noun

5 main types of phrases

Noun phrases NP

verb phrase VP

adjective phrase AdjP

Adverb phrase AdvP

Prepositional phrase PP

\
whatever type of phrase it is that will be the head eg in a adverb phrase the adverb of the sentence is the head

Requirements of a noun phrase

Must have a head

Head = noun or pronoun

Nouns may also contain

Determiners

Pre modifiers = adjective phrase

Head = noun/pronoun

Post modifiers = propositional phrase

Definition of someone who speaks only 1 language

Monolingual

Typical processes involved in bilingualism

Language interference

Code switching

Code switching definition

Switching between different languages within the same sentence

Benefits of bilingualism

Children may therefore be better at learning words

Can advantage developing reading skills

Bilingualism- both languages develop at the same time definition

Simultaneous

connotation

emotional/cultural/social associations that a word carries beyond its literal definition- a wider meaning

Synonym

Same meaning

Antonym

Opposite meaning

Meronymy

Parts and wholes of meaning

Eg door- house

Category coordinates

Members of a category

Tennis, football, snooker

Hyponym

Subcategory

word or phrase that is a specific example of a broader category or umbrella term. For example, "shirts" and "pants" are hyponyms of the umbrella term "clothes".

hypernym

The umbrella term 

represents a category or a general term that encompasses other more specific terms. For example, "animal" is a hypernym of "dog", "cat", "bird", etc.

Structural ambiguity

An utterance can have more than one meaning because of its structure

Semantic error

Paraphasia

Word is similar to target word in meaning

Eg bread for cake

Errors in aphasia- paraphasia

Semantic error

Semantic associated error

Phonological error

Visual error

Mixed error

Neologism

Semantic association error

Paraphasia

Word is associated with target word in meaning eg Cotton for shirt

Phonological error

Paraphasia

produced word is similar to target word in sound (bat for bag)

Neologism

Paraphasia

not a recognisable word (fewer than 50% phonemes the same as the target or a recognisable word)

denotation

the literal or dictionary definition of a word, without any emotional or cultural connotations.

Pragmatic definition

A bout meaning in language in the specific context in which the language is used

\- How we interpret utterances in a particular context

\- How we produce utterances for a particular context

Discourse conventions

disclosures-Pragmatics

Conversation

Narratives

Non-lteral languages

Sarcasm

Idioms

Metaphors

grices maxims 1975

Grice's Maxims refer to a set of conversational principles that guide effective communication and cooperative conversations

Maxim of Quantity (provide enough information),

Maxim of Quality (be truthful),

Maxim of Relation (be relevant)

Maxim of Manner (be clear and concise).

theory of mind

the ability to understand and attribute mental states (such as beliefs, desires, and intentions) to oneself and others

and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own.

It is a concept studied in psychology, neuroscience, and philosophy.

Monologic connected utterance

A single period of speech produced by one person

Dialog is connected utterances

Conversation between two or more people

Discourse

Wirrten, spoken and signed language

Cohesive devices

the specific grammatical and semantic aspects of discourse which link the utterances/sentences together into a “whole”

* making texts flow

Types:

Reference

Sequence

Continuation of vocabulary

Ellipsis

Reference

Referring to someone in different forms

Eg Pronouns and names

Sequence

Temporal additions helping describe order of an event

Eg - Then, finally

Ellipsis

Omitting info but sentences are all clear with contextual relevance

Anaphoric

Nouns that refer back to things

Eg pronouns

Cinderella walked and SHE wiggled

The range of different terms used for one item is an example of variation at what sociolinguistic level?

Lexical

T-glottalling is an example of what sociolinguistic level ?

Phonological

Dialect

Variation at more than just phonological level

Eg alos lexical, syntactic, morphological, discourse-pragmatic

Sociolinguistics- phonology/phonetics/prosody features

Rhombic R , Mancunian G

Sociolinguistics lexis features

Variety in words eg dialectal

Sociolinguistics morphology features

Eg suffixes in northern and southern accents

FeathA, feathRs

Sociolinguistics syntax features

Order

Eg RP has no prepositions at end of words

Sociolinguistics discourse features

Idioms

Pragmatics

Sociolinguistics theorist

William labov

conjugating verbs

the process of changing a verb to match its subject in tense, person, and number.

verbs have six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect.

Each tense has four forms: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive.

For example, the verb "to be" in the present tense can be conjugated as follows:

* I am
* You are
* He/She/It is
* We are
* You are
* They are

To conjugate a verb in a different tense, simply change the verb form accordingly. For example, to conjugate "to be" in the past tense, you would use "was" or "were" depending on the subject.

Conjugating verbs correctly is important for clear communication and proper grammar.

The main verbs

Lexical

Copular

Auxiliary

Simple

Lexical verb

Has a clear meaning and content

Stand look cycle

Copular verb

Set of verbs with little meaning on their own

They link information about the subject to the subject

Eg to be

Auxiliary verb

Helps another verb

Subtly changes the meaning of a sentence

Eg have is can

Simple verb group features

Has 1 verb per clause

Main verb/lexical verb

Is in present or past tense

Tense is marked morphologically on the main verb

Tense- morphological

Is present and past tense

Morphologically marked on the main verb

Present is regular and irregular - he she / am is

Past is regular and irregular- ed / took was

Time- semantic

Present past and future tense

Marked by auxiliary verbs / adverbials

Will, now, tomorrow, next, yesterday

ses

social economic status

RP

received pronunciation
-trad
-contemp

SSBE

southern standard bristish english

aphasia

inability to speak

dysphasia

speech difficulty resulting from brain injury

prepositional stranding

preposition with an object occurs somewhere other than immediately adjacent to its object; for example, at the end of a sentence. The preposition is then described as stranded, hanging, or dangling.