Ch. 11: American Psych and Functionalism

PSYCH 304

During Stage One (1640–1776) of early U.S. psychology, what was the primary purpose of learning psychology?

To support and learn the accepted religious theology of the day.

Which philosopher's 1690 essay arrived in the colonies in 1714, signaling the start of the 'American Enlightenment'?

John Locke

In Stage Two (1776–1886) of U.S. psychology, which school of philosophy exerted the most influence as psychology became a separate discipline?

Scottish common-sense philosophy

Who authored the 1827 textbook that is considered the first on psychology by a U.S. author?

Thomas Upham

What characterizes 'naive realism' as held by Scottish philosophers like Thomas Reid?

The belief that sensory information can be accepted at face value.

During the U.S. Renaissance (1886–1896), what type of psychology began to be emphasized in alignment with evolutionary theory?

A psychology emphasizing individual differences, adaptation, and practicality.

What 1896 publication is often cited as the formal beginning of the school of functionalism?

John Dewey's article 'The Reflex Arc in Psychology'.

How did structuralism and functionalism differ regarding their primary research tools?

Structuralists relied exclusively on introspection, while functionalists used introspection alongside animal study and psychopathology.

In terms of methodology, why were structuralism and functionalism considered 'incommensurable'?

They operated under entirely different paradigms, assumptions, goals, and valid research methods.

What was the primary focus of functionalists regarding the mind compared to structuralists?

Functionalists focused on the 'is for' (function) of the mind, whereas structuralists focused on the 'is' (structure).

Why did functionalists encourage the study of motivation?

Because an organism acts differently in the same environment as its needs change.

Concept: Pragmatism

Definition: The belief that the ultimate criterion for judging an idea's validity is its usefulness or 'cash value'.

William James's 'Radical Empiricism' holds that which aspects of human experience are worthy of study?

All consistently reported aspects of human experience, including religion and mysticism.

Why did William James believe it was necessary to assume determinism while using the scientific method in psychology?

Because science would be impossible without the assumption of uniform causation.

William James's 1890 work, which revolutionized psychology, is titled _.

The Principles of Psychology

What was William James's primary objection to the elementism of German experimental psychology?

He argued that consciousness is a continuous stream and cannot be divided into bits for analysis.

According to James, why is consciousness described as 'personal'?

It reflects the unique experiences of an individual, making common elements impossible to find.

James used the metaphor of a _ to describe the continuous, ever-changing nature of subjective life.

Stream

What does it mean for consciousness to be 'selective' according to James?

The mind selects certain events for consideration and inhibits others through the agency of attention.

From an evolutionary perspective, what is the 'function' of consciousness for James?

To aid the individual in adapting to the environment.

How did William James explain the formation of habits neurophysiologically?

Repetition causes neural pathways to become more entrenched, easing the passage of energy through them.

According to James's maxims, how should one eliminate a bad habit?

Abstain from the bad habit completely from the start rather than attempting to slow down.

Concept: Empirical Self (The 'Me')

Definition: The sum total of everything a person can call their own, divided into material, social, and spiritual components.

According to James, which component of the empirical self consists of a person's states of consciousness and subjective reality?

The spiritual self

James's distinction of the self: The 'Me' is the self as known, while the 'I' is the _.

Self as knower (pure ego)

What is the formula William James proposed for self-esteem?

$Self-esteem = \frac{Success}{Pretensions}$

According to James's formula, what are the two ways a person can increase their self-esteem?

By succeeding more or by decreasing their pretensions (attempts).

How does the James-Lange theory of emotion reverse traditional beliefs about the sequence of an emotional event?

It posits that bodily reactions occur first, and the perception of those reactions is the emotion.

Based on James's theory of emotion, what advice is given to someone who wants to feel a certain way?

Act out the outward movements of the desired disposition cold-bloodedly.

Concept: Ideo-motor theory of behavior

Definition: The theory that the idea of a certain action causes that action to occur automatically unless inhibited.

In James's analysis of voluntary behavior, what is the 'essential phenomenon of will'?

The effort of attention required to hold an idea of interest in consciousness.

How did James use pragmatism to distinguish between 'tender-minded' and 'tough-minded' people?

Tender-minded people are rationalistic and religious, while tough-minded people are empirical and materialistic.

Who did William James choose to replace him as director of the Harvard Psychology Laboratory in 1892?

Hugo Münsterberg

Münsterberg's method of 'reciprocal antagonism' for treating mental illness involves _.

Strengthening thoughts that are the opposite of those causing the problem.

What was Münsterberg's view on the existence of the 'subconscious mind'?

He famously stated that there is no such thing as a subconscious mind.

Münsterberg is considered the founder of forensic psychology because he was the first to _.

Apply psychological principles to legal matters, such as the unreliability of eyewitness testimony.

In industrial psychology, why did Münsterberg emphasize taking individual differences into account?

Because tasks that some find boring may be interesting to others, affecting work efficiency and selection.

Why did Hugo Münsterberg fall into extreme public disfavor toward the end of his life?

Due to his nationalistic loyalty to Germany during the onset of World War I.

Mary Whiton Calkins invented the _ technique to study the influence of frequency and recency on memory.

Paired-associate

What was the outcome when Mary Whiton Calkins completed all requirements for a PhD at Harvard?

Harvard refused to grant the degree because she was a woman.

In Calkins's brand of psychology, the 'self' is defined as _.

The immediately experienced, directly realized reality in all experiencing.

Who was the first female president of the American Psychological Association (1905)?

Mary Whiton Calkins

Which psychologist established the first psychology laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins University in 1883?

G. Stanley Hall

What was G. Stanley Hall's role in the founding of the American Psychological Association (APA)?

He organized the first meeting in 1892 and was elected its first president.

Concept: Recapitulation theory

Definition: The idea that each individual in their lifetime reenacts all evolutionary stages of the human species.

How did G. Stanley Hall view the expression of 'primitive impulses' in children?

He believed they must be given expression in childhood to prevent them from being carried into adulthood.

G. Stanley Hall's 1904 magnum opus, which defined the field for decades, focused on which life stage?

Adolescence

What was Hall's 'recipe for social progress' regarding adolescent sexual energy?

The inhibition and redirection (sublimation) of erotic energy into mental and social energy.

For G. Stanley Hall, what was the primary psychological function of religious 'conversion'?

The subordination of the self to the needs of others (the move from self-love to love of others).

Who was the first African American to obtain a PhD in psychology in the United States (1920)?

Francis Cecil Sumner

Which university, under Francis Cecil Sumner's leadership, became a major center for training African American psychologists?

Howard University

Kenneth Bancroft Clark's research on the developmental effects of segregation was famously cited in which 1954 Supreme Court case?

Brown v. Board of Education

What did the 'doll studies' by Kenneth and Mamie Clark demonstrate about black children in segregated environments?

That segregation led to children judging white dolls as 'nice' and black dolls as 'bad,' indicating psychological damage.

John Dewey's critique of the 'Reflex Arc' argued against dividing behavior into _.

Separate sensory, brain, and motor elements.

According to Dewey, how does the experience of a child being burned by a flame change the 'stimulus'?

The perception of the flame changes from an object to be grasped to one that elicits avoidance.

Proponent of 'Progressive' Education: John Dewey's famous statement was that students learn by _.

Doing

In his address 'The Province of Functional Psychology,' James Rowland Angell stated that mental functions exist to _.

Help the organism survive by mediating between its needs and the environment.

Harvey Carr's 'adaptive act' consists of which three components?

A motive, an environmental setting, and a response that satisfies the motive.

James McKeen Cattell was primarily influenced by which British researcher in his pursuit of mental testing?

Francis Galton

What was the purpose of the Psychological Corporation founded by Cattell, Thorndike, and Woodworth?

To provide psychological services to education and industry.

Robert Sessions Woodworth called his brand of psychology 'dynamic psychology' because of its primary interest in _.

Motivation (why people do what they do)

Why did Woodworth use the symbol S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response) instead of S-R?

To emphasize that the internal condition of the organism (O) determines how it responds to a stimulus.

Conwy Lloyd Morgan's 'Canon' states that animal behavior should not be interpreted through 'higher psychical faculties' if it can be explained by _.

Lower psychological processes (keeping explanations as simple as possible).

Who was the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894) and author of 'The Animal Mind'?

Margaret Floy Washburn

Thorndike concluded from his puzzle-box experiments that learning is 'incremental,' meaning it _.

Occurs a little bit at a time rather than all at once through 'insight'.

Concept: Connectionism (Thorndike)

Definition: The theory that learning involves the strengthening or weakening of neural bonds between sense impressions and impulses to action.

What does Thorndike's 'Law of Exercise' state?

Associations are strengthened by use (practice) and weakened by disuse.

How did Thorndike revise his 'Law of Effect' in 1929 regarding punishment?

He concluded that while reward (satisfaction) strengthens an association, punishment (annoyance) has no effect on it.

Concept: Identical elements theory of transfer

Definition: The contention that learning transfers from one situation to another only to the extent that the two situations share similar elements.

Why is James Mark Baldwin often remembered in relation to Piaget?

His views on child cognitive development formed the basis for much of Jean Piaget’s later work.

What is the 'Baldwin Effect' in evolutionary theory?

The mechanism by which learning during an individual's lifetime can influence the course of evolution.

In James's view, how does 'habit' serve as a 'societal fly-wheel'?

It keeps people within their social strata and professional roles, preventing societal chaos.

How did Münsterberg's 'ideo-motor' view differ from James's regarding the relationship between behavior and ideas?

James believed ideas cause behavior, while Münsterberg believed behavior causes ideas.

What was the significance of Hall's invitation to Sigmund Freud in 1909?

It was Freud's only visit to the U.S. and helped gain international recognition for psychoanalysis.

Which Stage Two contributor emphasized that the existence of God need not be proved logically because personal feelings can be trusted?

Thomas Reid (Scottish common-sense school)

What phrase did William James use to mock the tedious laboratory work of German experimentalists?

Brass instrument psychology

According to James, what determines 'action' in the process of volition?

What holds attention.

Who founded the first psychological laboratory in Japan?

Yujiro Motora

What was the primary argument of Thorndike and Woodworth's 1901 study on 'formal discipline'?

They found no support for the idea that studying difficult subjects like Latin improves general intelligence.

In the context of functionalism, what is the 'is' vs the 'is for'?

Structuralism studied the 'is' (what the mind is), while functionalism studied the 'is for' (what the mind does).

George John Romanes's animal research was criticized for 'anthropomorphizing,' which means _.

Attributing human thought processes and motives to nonhuman animals.

Who was the second female president of the APA (1921)?

Margaret Floy Washburn

How did William James differentiate between 'James' and 'Jimmy' in his publications?

James referred to the large two-volume Principles, while Jimmy was the condensed Briefer Course.

What was the primary focus of James McKeen Cattell's 1904 assessment of eminence in psychology?

Ranking the top figures in American psychology by their perceived importance.

Which stage of U.S. psychology (1886–1896) saw the publication of John Dewey's 'Psychology' and James's 'Principles'?

Stage Three: The U.S. Renaissance

According to James, why is it impossible to step into the same 'stream of consciousness' twice?

Because the context and stream providing the idea are constantly changing.

What did G. Stanley Hall conclude about the universality of religious conversion in adolescence?

He believed it was a natural, normal, and necessary universal process.

What happened to functionalism as a distinct school of psychology?

It was absorbed into mainstream psychology because its major tenets were so successful.