Macbeth analysis

"Is this a dagger which I see before me, the handle toward my hand?"
Techniques:

• Apparition/vision

• Dagger symbolism

• Foreshadowing

• Soliloquy

• Interrogative

• Elision

• ‘handle towards my hand’

• Apparition of dagger manifests M’s unchecked hamartia (ambition) and overwhelming guilt

• Symbolises impending regicide and M’s descent into psychological turmoil. Dagger acts as lure and warning, scapegoat for actions, reflecting moral, mental collapse

• Soliloquy provides intimate access to unraveling psyche; mind teeters on edge of madness, illustrating anagnorisis of inner conflict

• Rhetorical questions, interrogatives capture fractured grip on reality, showing how ambition distorts perception

• Elision (omitting key events offstage, e.g., D’s murder) heightens tension, accelerates pace of rise and fall

• Phrase “handle toward my hand” suggests externalising responsibility, as if fate compels. If dagger is supernatural, it imposes control; if hallucination from “heat-oppressed brain,” it externalises desires

"False face must hide what the false heart doth know"
Techniques:

• Dramatic irony

• Metaphor

• Repetition

• Iambic pentameter

• Illustrates dramatic irony as D unaware of M plans whilst audience fully aware of deceit, reinforcing themes of appearance vs reality and M’s ability to manipulate it, progressing capacity for manipulation and use of deceit to achieve ambitions. Sacrifices integrity, pushing to inevitable downfall as tragic hero (tragic end done by own desires)

• ‘False face’ metaphor represents M’s acceptance of deceit as tool/mask for ambition, exposing conflict between outer and inner intentions. Allows audience to perceive dangers of ambition and how internal conflict leads to downfall as tragic hero

• Repetition of ‘false’ emphasises extent of deception and corruption of appearance (face) and intentions (heart)

• Rhythm gives line calm composed tone, contrasting dark content – chillingly rational in acceptance

"Stars, hide your fires, let not light see my black and deep desires."
Techniques:

• Motif

• Celestial imagery

• Rhyming couplets

• ‘fires’

• Personification

• Metaphor

• Motif of stars exposes M and B as diametrically opposed in aspirations; M wants to hide malicious intentions from God whilst B exudes loyal, cautious behaviours

• Employs celestial imagery as stars symbolise fate, divine presence – by telling them to ‘hide their fires’ he rejects natural, divine order whilst showing awareness of sinful acts (highlights moral corruption, builds dramatic irony – audience aware of evil plots)

• Rhyming couplets show supernatural influence, implying subjugation by lure of evil from witches is fate – shows lack of agency

• ‘Fires’ connote aggression, foreshadowing increasing cruelty and aggression as play develops, showing how ‘deep desires’ lead to self-destruction and harm to others

• Personification in commanding stars shows futile endeavour, suggesting going against fate (stars in fixed position) is futile attempt

• Metaphor depicting light as symbolic of goodness, black as evil he will commit. Juxtaposition emphasises tumultuous mental state, highlighting audience sympathy

"I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition which o'erleaps itself And falls on th' other"
Techniques:

• Personification

• Metaphor

• M personifies ambition as force that can leap and fall, suggesting it possesses life of its own – speaks to irresistible allure. Technique elevates ambition from mere desire to powerful entity influencing unchecked thoughts and actions. Personification reveals internal struggle within M, illustrating awareness of ambition as corrupting influence transforming formerly innocent mindset into one driven by moral decay, ruthless pursuit of power

• Equestrian metaphor of “vaulting ambition” illustrates ambition as physical leap, suggesting M’s aspirations are lofty but fraught with danger. Acknowledging eventual “fall” indicates awareness that all-encompassing ambition is hamartia destined to lead to mental, physical decline from grace as tragic hero

"Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood clean from my hand?"
Techniques:

• Motif of blood

• Hyperbole

• Religious allusion (Neptune)

• Imagery of permanence

• Blood represents guilt, psychological consequences of violent actions. M realises he can never be cleansed of crime, linking to LM’s later obsessive hand-washing (“Out, damned spot!”). Symbolises how murder has permanent repercussions personally and politically, as Scotland suffers from actions

• M exaggerates that “all great Neptune’s oceans” could not wash hands, emphasising enormity of sin. Shows guilt cannot be removed physically; will torment psychologically for life, contributing to downfall

• Referring to Neptune, Roman god, suggests even pagan divine forces cannot absolve. Highlights M has strayed far from Christian morality (by committing regicide) that no god can aid, stressing universal weight of crime

• Imagined stain on hands shows sin leaves permanent mark on soul. Shakespeare emphasises shame, psychological torment, underlining tragic hero status and irreversible consequences of ambition and murder

"Bloody instructions which plague the inventor"
Techniques:

• Motif of blood

• Diction: “instructions”

• Metaphor of plague

• Foreshadowing

• Blood used throughout play as symbol of guilt, violence. “Bloody instructions” foreshadow how M’s actions will stain conscience permanently

• “Instructions” suggests compulsion, as if M taught or guided to commit murder. Reflects LM’s pressure and witches’ prophecy manipulating him, undermining sense of agency. Fate may also be instructing M, creating dramatic irony: while he thinks choosing freely, audience sees him trapped by supernatural influence

• Comparing violent deeds to “plague,” M recognises actions contagious – spread destruction beyond individual, infecting families, kingdoms, society. Later, Scotland described by Macduff as bleeding, suffering (“Bleed, bleed, poor country!”), personified as diseased body poisoned by tyranny

• M admits violent actions return to destroy one who commits them — “plague th’ inventor.” Foreshadows own downfall when violence rebounds. Self-destructive cycle of bloodshed mirrors tragedy structure as M plants seeds of own destruction, fulfilling prophecy through desperate attempt to control it

"valour's minion"
Techniques:

• Personification

• Diction: “minion”

• Heroic imagery

• Irony/foreshadowing

• Semantic field of violence and loyalty

• By personifying valour as master, Shakespeare suggests M serves abstract concept of honour, not just king or country. Elevates him above ordinary soldiers, but also dehumanises – he is tool of war rather than fully independent man

• “Minion” carries connotations of servitude, dependence, lack of autonomy. Suggests M’s identity subsumed under valour’s authority. However, “minion” also implies dangerous potential: once he rebels against servitude, he can redirect violent energy from noble service to destructive ambition. Shift foreshadows regicide, tyranny

• In Act 1, M exalted with noble imagery, framed as almost superhuman in battle. “Valour’s minion” builds reputation as Scotland’s greatest warrior. Dramatic irony arises as audience knows same violence soon turned against king

• What is first presented as praise becomes ironic in hindsight: obedience to valour short-lived. Betrays valour by killing D, act that destroys honour, natural order

• Language of loyalty (“valour”) combined with violence (“minion”) shows two inseparable in M’s character. Shakespeare critiques conflation: linking loyalty to violence, honour built on bloodshed inherently unstable

"bloody execution"
Techniques:

• Violent imagery

• Diction: “execution”

• Motif of blood

• Dramatic irony/ foreshadowing

• Semantic field of punishment and justice

• Shakespeare glorifies M’s violence at beginning, with “bloody execution” sounding almost heroic. Sets up tragic irony that same violence later horrifies characters, audience

• “Execution” connotes justice, punishment, righteousness – in Act 1, Macbeth’s killing seen as serving king, country. Later act of regicide becomes own “execution,” condemning morally, spiritually

• “Bloody” links to overarching motif of blood as guilt. Here symbolises bravery; by Act 2 stains conscience. Motif shifts as M descends from hero to tyrant

• Early descriptions of brutality foreshadow later atrocities. Audience, initially admiring, gradually realise capacity for “execution” turned against innocent. Irony most striking when murders Macduff’s wife, children: violence detached from purpose, consumed by fury, bloodlust

"heat oppressed brain"

"thou marshall'st me the way that I was going"
Techniques:

• Figurative imagery

• Diction: “heat” , “oppressed”

• Religious imagery

• Militaristic imagery: “marshall’st”

• Hallucination motif

• Ambiguity

• M’s mind implied fevered, clouded by overwhelming pressure. Hallucination may be caused by mental strain, symbolising toll ambition, manipulation have taken

• “Heat” connotes burning desire – ambition consumes him, just as LM’s fiery ambition “oppresses,” making metaphor for coercive psychological dominance. Also symbolises flames of hell, reinforcing weight of sin of regicide. For Jacobean audience, murdering God’s anointed king condemns soul, highlighting guilt, awareness of eternal consequences

• ‘Oppressed’ implies control, domination. Shakespeare portrays M as oppressed not by literal force, but by LM’s manipulation, own ambition. Inversion of Jacobean gender norms crucial: LM takes stronger, oppressive role, undermining masculinity

• “Marshall’st” means to lead like general leads soldiers. Ironically, great general M now led by hallucinations, ambition. Suggests lack of agency: following rather than leading, echoing earlier dependence on LM’s instructions

• Dagger itself hallucination, blurring boundary between reality, illusion. Motif reflects psychological cost of ambition, as mind unstable under guilt, pressure. Downfall product of supernatural fate (witches’ influence) or corrupted ambition? (fate vs free will)

"I am in blood stepped in so far that I should wade no more, returning were as tedious as go o'er"
Techniques:

• Metaphor

• Diction: “tedious”

• Imagery of blood

• Hyperbole

• M compares involvement in murder to wading through river of blood. Emphasises overwhelming nature of guilt, violence committed. Metaphor suggests he sees self as trapped: turning back as difficult as continuing, showing sense of inevitability, moral entrapment

• “Tedious” implies weariness, frustration, highlighting mental exhaustion from ambition, consequences of actions. Conveys resignation – recognises no easy way to restore order or absolve self, reflecting loss of innocence, moral clarity

• Blood recurring motif symbolising guilt throughout play. Here reflects not just past murders but psychological, political consequences continuing to grow. Reinforces idea that ambition has set off chain of irreversible violence, impacting self and kingdom

• M exaggerates extent of crimes to emphasise crossing point of no return. Highlights awareness of moral corruption, suggests further violence inevitable to maintain power

"Tell me""call 'em"
Techniques:

• Imperatives

• Personal pronoun

• Snyder’s perspective

• M’s use of imperatives highlights hubris, growing arrogance; bluntness of commands indicates belief that he can control even supernatural forces witches represent. Addressing them with commanding authority reveals hubris has corrupted judgement

• Commands deeply personal, indicating sense of identity entirely entwined with ambition, belief in own invincibility. Focus in “me” shows M no longer considers greater good or moral consequences; singularly obsessed with own desires as tyrant

• Witches present nouns rather than verbs. They give M titles but leave actions to achieve them to his interpretation. Imperative commands reflect hubris as he attempts to extract guidance, filling blanks of cryptic prophecies with own unchecked ambition

"And take a bond of fate" He will kill Macduff so that he can "tell pale-hearted fear it lies"
Techniques:

• Personification/ Metaphor

• Irony

• Imagery of fear

• M treats fate as if person he can bind into contract, showing delusional belief that he can command destiny. Reflects arrogance, detachment from reality. Metaphor of “bond” makes fate sound transactional, highlighting obsession with control. Shows corruption of natural order, as fate supposed to be divine, not negotiable

• ‘Bond’ in literal Jacobean sense was promise that person will pay debt, so M going to kill Macduff to ensure fate is kept, implying actions and fate work together, not everything down to fate. Need to reassure self shows he doesn’t fully trust witches

• Dramatic irony: audience knows M cannot control fate. Attempt to “take bond of fate” makes him look desperate, foolish, increasing tragic downfall. Situational irony: in trying to silence fear by killing Macduff’s family, fuels Macduff’s hatred, ensuring own death. Attempt to stop prophecy directly causes it

• M personifies fear as “pale-hearted,” seeing fear as cowardly, shameful. Ironically, he ruled by fear; all violence driven by paranoia. Shakespeare shows cost of ambition: stronger outwardly, weaker inwardly, trapped in insecurity

"Never shake thy gory locks at me"
Techniques:

• Grotesque imagery

• Imperative

• Motif of blood

• Adjective “gory” creates shocking, bloody image, making B’s ghost impactful on stage. Reflects how deeply M haunted by guilt, as blood recurring motif symbolising guilt, violence. Ghost can be read as manifestation of conscience, showing that even though he hired others to commit murder, cannot escape responsibility. B’s ghost psychological haunting rather than necessarily supernatural. Shakespeare blurs line between hallucination, reality, underlining mental deterioration

• M’s command shows desperate attempt to control or deny ghost’s accusation. Highlights futile effort to distance from guilt. Suggests M beginning to lose control over mind, as public outburst at banquet reveals inner torment. Command exposes lack of agency, highlighting theme of fate, inevitability: no matter how much M denies responsibility, past cannot be undone

• Blood symbolises cycle of violence M has set in motion. B murdered in cold blood, now ghost demands justice. Repeated image of blood foreshadows M’s own bloody end, restoration of order in Scotland

"Seyton, I am sick at heart"

"Bring me my armour"
Techniques:

• Homophone/ allusion

• Imperative

• Juxtaposition: (from “valour’s minion” to commanding Satan)

• Foreshadowing

• Seyton’s name sounds like “Satan,” suggesting M now openly collaborating with evil. Shakespeare emphasises moral downfall: abandoned God, aligning with Devil, cementing him as tragic hero consumed by ambition, sin

• Command demonstrates moral corruption: ordering figure representing sin, evil to serve him. Highlights how far M fallen from nobility to tyranny; would have shocked, disgusted Jacobean audience

• Early in play, M “valour’s minion,” celebrated for bravery, loyalty. Shift from heroic warrior to commander of evil underlines moral, psychological decline, reinforcing tragic trajectory

• M’s initial brutality: “smoked with bloody execution,” foreshadows downfall. Ambition, coupled with violent tendencies, serves as hamartia, showing early acts of brutality set path toward guilt, moral corruption, eventual ruin

"Life's but a walking shadow' which is 'signifying nothing'
Techniques:

• Metaphor

• Symbolism

• Nihilistic imagery

• Tragic irony

• Meta-theatricality

• By reducing life to shadow, M suggests existence insubstantial, empty, fleeting. Shadows depend on absence of light: symbolically, life by-product of sins, since he extinguished “light” of D’s kingship, virtue. Shadows lack agency – cannot control shadow, just as M cannot control fate once committed regicide

• Earlier, light symbolised goodness, divine order. Description of life as “shadow” confirms that by stepping into sin, darkness, permanently lost all sense of moral, divine order

• Repetition of “nothing” underscores despair. After striving for power, finds it meaningless. Nihilism can be coping mechanism: dismissing life as meaningless attempts to suppress horror of actions. For audience, provokes both disgust (at crimes) and sympathy (for despair)

• At start, M defined by “vaulting ambition” – now sees no value in ambition or life. Tragic flaw led to hopeless conclusion, fulfilling arc of tragic hero

• Shakespeare uses nihilism to remind audience of theatre’s illusion. Life on stage – like M’s reign – fleeting, ultimately disappears into nothingness. For Jacobean audience, jarring, “deflating” reminder of ephemeral nature of human existence

LM shifts from calling M "worthy Cawdor!... all hail hereafter" to her use of the epithet "coward"
Techniques:

• Emasculation

• Juxtaposition

• Strips him of power, agency, igniting violent response driven by need to conform to societal expectations of masculinity or risk emasculation

• Stark juxtaposition in LM’s characterisation, labelling of M highlights strategic, tyrannical, oppressive dynamics in relationship – she operates as femme fatale, driving force of regicide; juxtaposition serves as commentary on societal archetypes of masculinity, ambition

"Give me the daggers; the sleeping and the dead are but as pictures"
Techniques:

• Simile

• Sleep motif

• Cold pragmatism

• Simile ‘as pictures’ downplays significance of death euphemistically, equating dead to inanimate images; also highlights hubris as she trivialises consequences of violence, suggesting murder as harmless as picture

• Cold pragmatism shows unchecked ambition, revealing deep detachment from moral implications, consequences of actions - dismisses vulnerability of sleep, portraying it as powerless, insignificant like perception of death

• Equates sleep to pictures, denying usual symbolic role as state of peace, innocence, further reflecting detachment from natural order

• Motif of sleep becomes critical later, as inability to sleep signifies psychological toll, catharsis of actions

• Snyder contends unnatural murder unleashes unnatural movement in dead, which LM experiences when sleepwalking – carcass of insanity mirrors perturbation incited in nature (contrasts earlier claim that dead just mere pictures)

• Later anagnorisis as sleepwalking in madness reveals psychological consequences of disruption – embodies unnatural chaos sown

"But screw your courage to the sticking-place, and we'll not fail"
Techniques:

• Metaphor

• Imperative

• Metaphor of ‘screwing courage’ implies LM sees courage as something that can be tightly secured. Imagery suggests mechanical act of determination, reflecting belief in necessity of decisive, unwavering action to achieve unchecked ambitions

• Employs imperative command with ‘screw,’ showcasing authoritative role in relationship, emasculating M, clarifying she assigns verbs, actions continually to him

• Command signifies control over M, emphasises urgency, pressure to follow through with regicide

"When you durst do it, then you were a man."
Techniques:

• Emasculation

• Juxtaposition

• Critic D.J Enright perspective

• Challenges M’s masculinity by suggesting ability to commit murder defines him as man (emasculation)

• Manipulation of gender expectations to fuel ambition – insinuates true manhood linked to willingness to engage in ruthless acts

• Frames act of murder as test of masculinity

• Stark juxtaposition between being ‘a man’ and committing murder highlights complexity of masculinity within play

• Forces M to equate manhood to ruthlessness; LM distorts traditional gender roles, suggesting strength, courage intrinsically tied to violence, moral corruption

• Critic D.J. Enright suggests M and LM adopt different approaches to heinous crimes: LM “sprinter of evil,” M “long distance runner.” Challenge to M’s masculinity exemplifies immediate, forceful approach to plan to murder Duncan. LM’s readiness to push M into action demonstrates determination, willingness to embrace evil without dwelling on moral implications. Sees murder as necessary step to achieve power, status, pressures M to shed doubts, embrace swift act of unchecked ambition

"Look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under't"
Techniques:

• Simile

• Allusion

• Snyder’s perspective

• LM’s simile juxtaposes two contrasting images – “innocent flower” and “serpent.” Flower, symbol of virtue, purity, represents outward façade M must adopt to appear trustworthy, unthreatening; being duplicitous. In contrast, serpent, symbol of treachery, danger, embodies underlying malice, ruthless ambition necessary to execute plans

• “Serpent” serves as biblical allusion to serpent in Garden of Eden, symbol of ultimate duplicity, fall of mankind. Invoking imagery heightens moral gravity of LM’s counsel, aligning manipulation with original sin, temptation

• Snyder asserts witches present nouns rather than verbs. They give titles to M without specifying actions to attain them. LM supplies verbs, drives actions. While witches label M with noble titles, LM pushes him toward treacherous actions to claim crown. By urging him to “look like innocent flower,” instructs façade of innocence, trustworthiness, while she embodies serpent – symbolising cunning, malice, plotting rise to power

"Come thick night and pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell."
Techniques:

• Personification

• Alliteration

• Snyder’s perspective

• LM invokes night, darkness as active agents, imploring them to shroud world in “smoke of hell.” Personification aligns her with malevolent supernatural forces, reflects desire to suppress conscience, moral judgement. Symbolically surrenders humanity to become antagonist, embracing darkness literally, metaphorically to mask forthcoming evil deeds

• Repeated ‘t’ sounds in “thick,” “thee” heighten sinister tone, inject palpable sense of urgency. Harsh consonants underscore aggressive pursuit, irresistible allure of power, intensifying atmosphere of foreboding, drawing attention to active role in orchestrating M’s descent into moral chaos

• Snyder asserts witches present nouns rather than verbs. They give titles to M without specifying actions to attain them. Aligns with point that witches provide titles but leave agency, responsibility to M. Attempts to extract actionable guidance emphasise hubris, ambition as he seeks to bend supernatural forces to will, filling gaps left by witches’ cryptic prophecies with violent actions

"Come you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here."
Techniques:

• Imperative

• Gender subversion

• Snyder’s perspective

• LM’s use of imperative form, commanding “spirits,” mirrors witches’ control over supernatural forces. Plea to be “unsexed” demonstrates determination to cast off femininity, adopt ruthless qualities associated with masculinity. Marks beginning of transformation into femme fatale, ambition for M’s success overriding traditional gender expectations. Orders supernatural, aligning with it. LM acts as human agent of supernatural, ensuring M’s temptation, initially fuelled by witches, is carried out; calling on ‘spirits’ parallels witches’ spells

• Request to be “unsexed” represents profound gender subversion. Positions her as androgynous figure, simultaneously rejecting patriarchy while embodying traits of masculine power, violence

• Snyder asserts witches present nouns rather than verbs. Give titles to M without specifying actions to attain them. LM, in call to be “unsexed,” seeks title of power, dominance without clear understanding of actions, consequences. Desire to transcend gender without grasping full implications parallels M’s ambition

"My hands are of your colour, but I shame to wear a heart so white"
Techniques:

• Colour imagery

• Emasculation

• Exclamatory tone

• Symbolism

• Imperative

• “White” connotes cowardice, weakness, femininity, innocence. LM uses insult to strip M of warrior identity, implying dishonourable. LM despises compassion, glorifies violence – reversal of expected female values

• By mocking “heart,” LM defines masculinity as courage to commit murder. Narrow definition manipulates M into fulfilling violent desires. Reflects critique of gender expectations: LM rejects assigned femininity, but redefinition of masculinity leads to destruction

• “Infirm of purpose!” highlights scorn, dominance. Harsh language reflects role as driving force behind D’s murder. Presented as unnatural: wife should not berate husband, unsettling Jacobean audience, linking LM to demonic influence

• Blood represents guilt. LM acknowledges involvement but mocks M’s emotional weakness, foreshadowing later psychological collapse. Reveals dramatic irony: while dismissing guilt here, later consumed by it

• “Infirm” implies physical, moral weakness. LM reduces M to coward, unworthy of warrior status. Insult highlights dominance: commands moral narrative of scene, forcing M into submission

"I would, while it was smiling in my face, have pluck'd my nipple from his boneless gums , and dash'd the brains out"
Techniques:

• Violent feminine imagery

• Juxtaposition

• Hyperbole

• Manipulative time

• Subversion of gender roles

• Reference to “nipple,” “boneless gums” emphasises maternal intimacy, instantly twisted into violence (“pluck’d,” “dash’d”). Shakespeare shocks audience by corrupting something sacred, tender (motherhood), linking it to brutality, unnatural ambition

• Innocence of smiling baby contrasted with grotesque image of dashing brains out. Unnatural inversion mirrors regicide: D, like fatherly figure, murdered despite innocence, trust

• LM may not literally mean kill own child, but extreme claim shames M into action. Hyperbolic violence highlights “resolve” versus M’s hesitation, reinforcing dominance in relationship

• Shocking vow pressures M into following through with D’s murder. Undermines masculinity, implying less committed than LM

• By adopting violent, “masculine” traits, LM rejects expected feminine role. Aligns with earlier plea to spirits to “unsex me here,” showing transformation into unnatural, ambitious figure

"Out, damned spot, Out I say"
Techniques:

• Motif of blood

• Imperative

• Diction: “damned”

• Irony

• Blood continues to symbolise guilt. “Spot” on LM’s hands shows moral stain of murder is permanent. Shakespeare links psychological guilt to physical imagery: imagined blood manifests inner torment, conscience

• Repeated imperative “Out” demonstrates desperation, loss of control. Earlier LM manipulated M, orchestrated murder; here powerless against own conscience, highlighting tragic decline as attempt to command becomes hysterical

• “Damned” implies eternal punishment, moral condemnation, emphasising guilt so severe it feels spiritually inescapable. Efforts to remove “damned spot” futile, reflecting irreversible consequences of sin

• Speech stark reversal of earlier bravado, where claimed “a little water clears us of this deed.” Shakespeare uses irony to show psychological cost of crime: those who appear strongest destroyed by guilt, reinforcing moral structure

"A little water clears us of this deed"
Techniques:

• Dramatic irony

• Diction: “little water”

• Contrast with M

• Symbolism

• Foreshadowing

• Audience knows guilt not easily erased, making assurance seem naïve, chilling. Irony fulfilled later when obsessively hallucinates blood on hands (“Out, damned spot!”), showing inability to escape guilt

• Adjective “little” trivialises enormity of crime, reducing regicide to something rinsable. Shakespeare presents as dangerously arrogant, highlighting flawed perception of sin, consequence

• While M tormented by guilt immediately (“Will all great Neptune’s oceans wash this blood clean from my hand?”), dismisses it. Role reversal makes later downfall more shocking – goes from calm control to mental disintegration

• Water symbolises purity, cleansing in Christian tradition, but LM treats as superficial fix. Shakespeare shows sin corrupts even sacred symbols; neither water nor ritual can truly absolve guilt

• Dismissal of guilt foreshadows opposite truth: becomes consumed by it. Image of “washing hands” returns in sleepwalking scene, creating tragic cyclical pattern

"All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand."
Techniques:

• Hyperbole

• Olfactory imagery

• Change from verse to prose

• Lady Macbeth’s use of hyperbole emphasises overwhelming guilt; exaggeration underscores how haunted she feels by past actions, illustrating hamartia as ambition leads to atrocities causing psychological breakdown. Irresistible allure toward power, control results in unchecked guilt, transforming her into antagonist in own tragedy

• Vivid reference to scent in “sweeten this little hand” uses olfactory imagery to illustrate depth of psychological suffering. Perfumes connote luxury, beauty; here even exotic scents cannot overpower imagined smell of blood, guilt so deep. Unlike visual stain, smells linger, invade senses – mirrors guilt pervading mind, no escape. Imagery highlights sleep motif as guilt prevents peace, rest. “Little hand” symbolises emasculation of once-dominant role, showcasing carcass of insanity – “little” reduces hand, by extension self, to small, weak, delicate

• Transitions from verse (high-status characters) to prose, indicating loss of control, mental disturbance, low status. Quote encapsulates despair, as no external means – perfumes – can mask internal horror of actions. Shift to prose highlights descent into madness, feeling of low status, unable to maintain dignified noblewoman facade

• ‘Perfumes’ connote femininity, showing mental instability, loss of agency; reverting to feminine qualities contrasts earlier pursuit of masculinity, plea to witches to “unsex” her

• Echoes Macbeth’s earlier claim “Will all great Neptune’s oceans wash this blood clean from my hand?” to which she replied “a little water clears us of this deed,” ironic, painful reversal of earlier confidence

"His flight was madness"
Techniques:

• Diction: “flight”

• Diction: “madness”

• Irony

• Juxtaposition

• Characterisation (L. Macduff’s perspective)

• Word “flight” suggests sudden, impulsive movement. L Macduff uses it to imply Macduff abandoned family quickly, without consideration. Reflects urgency of political mission – fleeing to England to raise army to fight M – showing personal sacrifice necessary in times of tyranny

• Labels actions as “madness,” highlighting how irrational, dangerous choice seems from domestic perspective. Irony: while flight appears reckless to family, it is courageous, patriotic act. Contrast shows conflict between private duty, public responsibility

• Irony: “mad” choice morally just, politically necessary. M has caused kingdom to fall into chaos; Macduff’s “madness” only way to restore order. Creates tension: audience recognises heroism even as L Macduff cannot, generating sympathy

• Critique emphasises contrast between familial safety, patriotic duty. Creates pathos: audience feels human cost of political conflict, seeing noble actions bring unintended consequences for innocent family

• Voice gives moral weight to consequences of political decisions. Perspective shows heroism not simple; noble acts in war can bring suffering at home, presenting Macduff as both heroic, fallible

• Audience emotionally engaged, feeling sympathy for L Macduff, children while understanding necessity of actions, highlighting human cost of ambition, tyranny, struggle between personal, national duty

"Thrice to thine and thrice to mine, and thrice again, to make up nine."
Techniques:

• Magical numbering

• Rhythmic incantations

• Snyder’s perspective

• Use of number “three” and multiples signifies witches’ alignment with dark, magical forces; three traditionally associated with witchcraft, supernatural. Repetition evokes ritualistic power, emphasises witches manipulate reality through incantations, duplicitous manner. Number suggests perverse order to chaos, hinting at twisted intentions

• Repetitive, sing-song nature of lines reinforces supernatural power, ritualistic nature of witches’ actions, highlighting control over fate. Engages audience in hypnotic rhythm, suggesting those who hear words drawn into dark schemes, showcasing theme of unchecked ambition

• Snyder asserts witches present nouns rather than verbs, putting titles on M without specifying actions to attain them. Highlights role as antagonists, offering prophecies that instigate tragic downfall through equivocation. Witches name fate – “Thane,” “King” – while leaving out bloody deeds required to achieve positions. Creates disconnect between ambition, action, leading to anagnorisis, peripeteia as M grapples with consequences of unchecked desires

"All hail, Macbeth that shalt be King hereafter!"
Techniques:

• Prophecy

• Foreshadowing

• Witches’ prophecy serves as irresistible allure fueling M’s unchecked ambition. Dramatic irony: audience understands dangers of promise, M initially sees only glorious future. Supernatural nature of prophecy makes M tragic hero as consumed by desire to fulfil destiny, ignoring moral, violent consequences

• Prophecy acts as foreshadowing, setting up eventual downfall. Witches present kingship without explaining means, leaving M to fill blanks with violence, treachery. Hubris after hearing prophecy leads to path of murder, deceit, tyranny

• Snyder suggests witches provide nouns (titles) rather than verbs, evident in declaration “All hail, Macbeth, that shalt be king hereafter!” Grant title without specifying how to achieve it, leaving vulnerable to own interpretation. Lack of direction triggers unchecked ambition, filled with violent, immoral actions

"Fair is foul, and foul is fair"
Techniques:

• Paradox/ chiasmus

• Repetition

• Foreshadowing

• Moral ambiguity

• Line structure creates mirror-image effect, unsettling audience. Immediately signals natural order inverted: what seems good may be evil, and vice versa, preparing audience for moral confusion central to play

• Repetition of “fair” and “foul” emphasises duality, uncertainty. Choice of opposites reinforces instability of reality – nothing can be trusted, reflecting witches’ power to manipulate perception

• M later repeats idea describing day as “so foul and fair,” foreshadowing entanglement with witches, moral compromise. Echo links him subconsciously to witches, suggesting supernatural influence shaping ambition

• Paradox introduces key theme of ethical uncertainty: characters cannot easily distinguish right from wrong. Jacobean audiences, steeped in Protestant ideas of divine order, would find inversion disturbing, heightening tension, fear factor

The witches claim that the shipman "shall live a man forbid"
Techniques:

• Adjective

• Lexical field of exile

• Foreshadowing

• Ambiguity

• Implies exclusion from divine blessing (shipman cut off from God, grace, as M later is, linking to downfall as tragic hero, ultimately damned). Suggests social exile as cursed man alienated from community, paralleling M’s alienation from Scotland as “tyrant”

• Elevates witches as demonic judges usurping God’s role in condemning souls, seen as blasphemous to Jacobean audience. Establishes tone of doom, inevitability – M’s journey framed as cursed, stripped of hope

• Prepares audience for M’s spiritual damnation as inability to pray confirms supernatural influence, guilt. Builds dramatic irony – audience anticipates downfall before M, intensifying tragic inevitability

• Leaves unclear whether witches curse actively or reveal fate, engaging audience in debate about responsibility. Reflects theme of equivocation as language becomes deceptive, echoing “fair is foul”

The witches claim that the shipman "shall sleep neither night not day"
Techniques:

• Motif of sleep

• Juxtaposition

• Foreshadowing

• Metaphor

• Sleep presented as divine blessing of innocence, rest; denial highlights cruelty of witches, rid him of peace of mind. Recurs later (“Macbeth does murder sleep”), reinforcing how murder contaminates peace, creating tragic inevitability. He kills D in sleep, cannot sleep himself; D represents virtue, purity, M is ‘tyrant’ fallen to supernatural influence

• Suggests total disruption of natural order – curse allows no respite, perpetual torment mirrors M’s descent into paranoia. Reflects inversion of natural binaries (light/dark, good/evil), presenting witches as enemies of order

• Anticipates M’s insomnia after regicide, showing guilt corrodes rest. Foreshadows broader unrest in Scotland, implies he will rid others of ‘sleep’. Natural order broken, Scotland loses purity, innocence as unnatural events occur – individual cannot sleep, nation under tyrant cannot flourish

• Suggests sleep is essence of humanity – its denial reduces man to restless shell, mirroring M’s dehumanisation. Elevates sleep into moral symbolism: only virtuous (e.g., D) rest peacefully, tyrants punished with insomnia. Guilt, moral corruption manifest physically, reinforcing theme that sin has tangible consequences

"The weird sisters, hand in hand"
Techniques:

• Diction: “weird”

• Imagery

• Symbolism

• Foreshadowing

• In Jacobean English, “weird” referred to fate, destiny rather than strange or unusual. Shakespeare presents witches as instruments of destiny, implying influence over human lives, events

• Suggests unity, coordination, emphasising witches act together to manipulate, control outcomes. Phrase conveys deliberate, ritualistic power, heightening threat

• Witches symbolise supernatural power challenging divine order, natural law. Joined hands reflect binding of fate, linking witches to predestination, inevitable course of M’s downfall

• Line foreshadows disruption, chaos witches bring, particularly in M’s moral, political life. Unity suggests influence intentional, potent, setting up central tension between fate, free will

The witches will "drain him dry as hay" (talking about the shipman)
Techniques:

• Simile

• Grotesque imagery

• Imperative tone

• Sexual innuendo

• Hay is grass once full of life, now cut, dried. Comparison reflects destructive consequences of witches’ power, leaving victims barren, wasted. Foreshadows M’s transformation from courageous warrior to hollow, spiritually exhausted tyrant, anticipating later nihilism

• Taking everyday, natural object like hay and twisting into grotesque symbol of lifelessness illustrates witches’ perverse ability to corrupt natural. Grotesque transformation would unsettle Jacobean audience, intensifying fear of witches as agents of unnatural disorder

• Witches’ declaration carries authoritative, commanding tone, implying capability to determine human destiny. Anticipates control over M, suggesting he becomes subject to their will, raising tragic question whether he ever had free will

• Phrase may contain sexual undertones, connoting draining of male vitality. Jacobean audience associated witches with sexual corruption, promiscuity; imagery provokes disgust, reinforcing presentation as inversion of natural femininity: rather than nurturing life, perverts it, turning vitality into barrenness

"By the pricking of my thumbs, something wicked this way comes"
Techniques:

• Foreshadowing

• Personification

• Snyder’s perspective

• Witch’s instinct foreshadows M’s arrival, “evil” he comes to embody as tyrant. Line reveals even witches, symbols of dark power, recognise M as force of greater wickedness, suggesting complete surrender to unchecked ambition, corruption driving actions

• “Pricking” of witch’s thumbs personifies ominous, supernatural awareness, symbolising witches’ connection to dark forces, inherent duplicitousness. Suggests power is instinctual, tied to fate, prophecy, deepening theme of supernatural influence over M’s life, course of events

• Snyder asserts witches present nouns rather than verbs, putting titles on M without specifying actions to attain them. Here, witches label M as “something wicked” – a noun, signifying entity or state of being. They do not dictate specific actions; leave course of actions ambiguous, creating pathway for violent, morally corrupt choices leading to downfall

"look not like th'inhabitants o'th'earth"
Techniques:

• Physiognomy (belief that external appearance reflects internal character)

• Motif of subversion

• Snyder’s perspective

• Physiognomy is key. B’s recognition of witches’ unnatural appearance highlights moral, supernatural depravity. Ability to perceive inhumanity contrasts with M’s later moral blindness. Witches’ physiognomy marks them as agents of unchecked evil, subtly aligning B with discernment, wisdom

• Motif of subversion emerges through witches’ rejection of natural order. Word “earth” invokes natural world, which witches fundamentally oppose. B’s resistance to irresistible allure contrasts with M’s eventual capitulation, positioning B as moral anchor amidst growing turmoil

• Snyder asserts M is roman à clef – novel relating to real-life people. B intended as ancestor of King James I, relating to James’ mother MQOS, whose children became Monarchs – she never was. B’s portrayal as morally superior figure recognising evil serves as allegory linking James to purity, wisdom

B describes the witches as "instruments of darkness" which "win us to our harm"
Techniques:

• Metaphor

• Verb phrase

• Noun: “instruments”

• Noun: “trifles”

• Implies witches are tools enacting evil rather than autonomous beings, emphasising moral, spiritual detachment. Conveys danger, fear: power is mysterious, pervasive, framing supernatural influence as insidious threat. Detaching evil from nature connotes moral evil; Jacobean audience, believing God created nature ‘in His image,’ would disassociate M from religion, link him to evil, supernatural

• Implies seduction rather than coercion – humans persuaded into destructive actions, showing subtle manipulation. Highlights inevitability of consequences when succumbing to temptation; witches’ guidance leads directly to M’s tragic downfall

• Suggests artificiality, contrivance, contrasting with natural order, metaphorically extends to M – becomes their “instrument,” acting on ambition (hamartia) while witches exploit it, resulting in chaos, disorder. Instruments connote manufacturing, detaching witches from morality, nature, highlighting contrast between witches and nature

• Suggests deception, apparent insignificance as minor truths or seemingly harmless temptations cause catastrophic outcomes. Originates from Middle English “trufle” (fraud/joke), emphasising witches as tricksters, underscoring subtlety, danger of influence

"If you can look into the seeds of time, and say which grain will grow and which will not"
Techniques:

• Metaphor

• Juxtaposition

• Diction: “trifles”

• Verb phrase: “restrain me in my cursed thoughts”

• Metaphor compares future to garden where some grains flourish, others fail, reflecting partial determinism, human influence over outcomes. Reinforces B’s moral alignment (associates self with natural growth, order, divine law, resisting corruption) and contrasts with M, whose “vaulting ambition” drives acting on witches’ temptations

• Natural imagery juxtaposed with supernatural – seeds symbolize life, growth, moral order, contrasting with witches’ artificial, sinister influence. Implies B in harmony with natural law, reinforcing virtuous, cautious approach, establishing him as moral anchor for audience

• “Trifles” originates from Middle English “trufle” (fraud, joke, trick), highlighting deceptive, manipulative nature of witches. Suggests seemingly insignificant information can have profound consequences if interpreted incorrectly, foreshadowing M’s downfall through misapplied ambition

• “Cursed” evokes hellish influence, showing B experiences temptation like M. Ability to restrain self demonstrates moral strength, self-discipline, emphasizing Shakespeare’s message that ethical choices under pressure maintain order, integrity

"What, can the devil speak true?"
Techniques:

• Religious imagery

• Rhetorical question

• Juxtaposition

• Use of “devil” immediately connects witches to sin, evil, rebellion against God, marking them as agents of damnation. Resonates with Jacobean audience, who viewed devil as literal, terrifying presence. Framing witches this way, B asserts moral corruption, distances self from them. Contrast between B’s rejection, M’s acceptance foreshadows moral trajectory of each character

• B’s rhetorical question conveys disbelief, suspicion, highlighting instinctive caution toward witches’ words. Suggests truth spoken by evil is corrupted, casting doubt on whether prophecy can be trusted. Reinforces B’s role as voice of reason, caution in play

• Paradox in juxtaposing absolute evil (“devil”) with concept of truth reinforces theme of appearance versus reality. On surface, witches seem to reveal reality, yet B recognises apparent honesty is deceptive. Shakespeare uses paradox to remind audience evil rarely presents openly, manipulates through half-truths, temptations. Foreshadows M’s downfall as he fails to see through witches’ manipulation

"Noble Banquo, thou hast no lest deserved Nor must be known no less to have done so."
Techniques:

• Adjective: “noble”

• Panegyric tone

• Natural imagery

• Juxtaposition

• Connotes honour, moral integrity, showing B as man of virtue admired by king, audience alike. Suggests generosity, compassion, heightening contrast with M, who later betrays both B, D

• D rewards B’s bravery, loyalty, showing him as ideal subject under divinely appointed ruler. Recognition strengthens B’s image as dutiful, principled, setting him apart from M’s growing ambition

• “There if I grow, harvest is your own” employs natural imagery, associates B with purity, moral order, showing commitment to serving D selflessly. Contrasts M, who pursues personal gain through regicide, breaking natural, divine order

• B’s restraint, loyalty deliberately juxtaposed with M’s ambition, betrayal. Moral opposition highlights destructive nature of unchecked ambition, intensifying tragic arc of M’s downfall. B presented as foil to M – M gives in to temptation, B resists, dies nobly.

"But that myself should be the root and father... Of many kings."
Techniques:

• Prophetic motif

• Dramatic irony

• Snyder’s perspective

• Reveals B awareness of witches’ prophecy, introducing prophetic motif driving much of play’s conflict

• Acknowledgment as progenitor of royal line demonstrates ambition, yet differs from M who succumbs to irresistible allure of power. B does not act on prophecies with unchecked ambition

• B’s ambition remains contained, audience knows his descendants will inherit throne (dramatic irony)

• Dramatic irony builds tension, elevates B’s integrity compared to M’s tragic hero arc

• Irony reinforces idea that B’s ambition, though present, is not tainted by duplicitous actions, highlighting role as foil to M

• Snyder asserts M is roman à clef – relates to real-life people. B intended as ancestor of King James I, linking to James’ mother MQOS. Notion that B will be “root and father” of kings nods to James’ legitimacy, contrasting with M’s duplicitous rise to power

"O treachery! Fly, good Fleance, fly, fly, fly! Thou mayst revenge."
Techniques:

• Exclamatory sentence and foreshadowing

• Contrast of ambition and legacy

• Snyder’s perspective

• Banquo’s exclamatory outburst, “O treachery!”, captures sudden betrayal and violent ambush orchestrated by M. Instinctive reaction shows understanding of unchecked ambition driving M to tyrannical deeds. Fleance symbolises peripeteia – turning point where M’s crimes lead to ruin

• Quote exemplifies contrast between B and M in handling ambition. B’s dying hope that Fleance might avenge him reflects belief in moral justice, rooted in GCOB. Ambition aligns him with divine justice, marking stark contrast to M’s bloody rise through duplicitous means

• Snyder asserts B’s walking in death answers to, or caused by, murder cutting him off prematurely. Unnatural murder generates unnatural movement in dead. B’s exclamation signals brutality of premature death, act of treachery defying natural order. Snyder notes unnatural murder sets stage for Banquo’s ghostly return, where violation of natural law causes unnatural movement in spirit world

Banquo's son must "embrace the fate of thar dark hour"
Techniques:

• Imagery of darkness

• Irony

• Symbolism

• Dark symbolises secrecy and danger; evil stereotypically occurs at night. Light offers protection, while darkness covers monstrous acts, creating disassociation. M believes he can kill Fleance and conceal it as he did with Duncan, showing descent into sin and tragic downfall. Unlike M, Fleance survives within darkness, suggesting hope endures

• Snyder asserts Macbeth is roman à clef; B intended as ancestor of King James I, relating to MQOS, whose children became monarchs but she never ruled. Fleance symbolises hope and continuity; young and powerless, he carries future of Banquo’s line, reminding that M cannot control destiny. Survival shows tyranny fails, natural succession and divine order ultimately prevail

• Dramatic irony: M believes he eliminated prophecy by killing B, audience knows Fleance survives, so prophecy continues. Heightens tension and underscores M’s futility. Bitter irony: attempts to secure throne through murder destabilise his rule further

"O horror, horror, horror!"

"Tongue nor heart cannot conceive nor name thee!..."
Techniques:

• Repetition

• Exclamatory statement

• Diction: “Tongue not heart cannot conceive nor name thee”

• The repeated exclamation emphasises Macduff’s shock and grief at discovering D’s murder, conveying the emotional weight and immediacy of the tragedy. The repetition mirrors the audience’s reaction, heightening tension and reinforcing the severity of regicide.

• Captures disbelief and helplessness, showing the crime is beyond comprehension, while reflecting Macduff’s moral and emotional integrity, contrasting with M’s cold, premeditated murder.

• Macduff struggles to articulate D’s death, highlighting the enormity of the crime and its emotional devastation, emphasising D’s importance as a king and the natural order he represents.

• The term “murder” is sacrilegious, suggesting a crime against God; Macduff recognises regicide and the moral imperative for punishment.

"I am not treacherous"
Techniques:

• Simple sentence

• Diction: “treacherous”

• Snyder’s perspective

• The emphatic simple sentence in Macduff’s declaration strips away ambiguity. Unlike M, who cloaks his intentions in duplicitous language, Macduff’s straightforward speech reinforces his sincerity and positions him as a moral counterpoint to M’s deceit.

• The word “treacherous” highlights the contrast between Macduff’s integrity and M’s betrayal, underlining the theme of loyalty versus ambition.

• Snyder’s roman à clef perspective positions Macduff as embodying legitimate kingship, contrasting with M’s illegitimate rise. His honor and refusal to act treacherously reinforce moral and political ideals, showing that true authority is linked to virtue rather than mere ambition/force.

"I have no words; my voice is in my sword."
Techniques:

• Personification

• Symbolism

• Snyder’s perspective

• Macduff personifies his sword, claiming his “voice” is in it, showing that his grief and anger over his family’s murder will be expressed through action. Violence becomes the instrument to restore justice and moral order.

• The sword symbolises righteous vengeance, reflecting Macduff’s role as the agent who will avenge his family and re-establish the Great Chain of Being disrupted by M’s tyranny.

• In line with Snyder’s roman à clef interpretation, Banquo represents the ancestor of King James I, whose legitimate line Macduff helps to protect. Macduff’s pursuit of justice mirrors this royal lineage theme, reinforcing the moral and historical legitimacy of his retribution.

"With an untitled tyrant bloody-sceptered, When shalt thou see thy wholesome days again?"
Techniques:

• Personification

• Rhetorical question

• Snyder’s perspective

• Scotland is personified as suffering under M’s “bloody-sceptered” tyranny, emphasising the nation’s victimhood and the violence unleashed upon it. Shakespeare presents Macduff as Scotland’s redeemer, the figure capable of restoring order and “wholesome days.”

• Macduff’s despair reflects the nation’s suffering, while his determination signals the peripeteia—the turning point where Scotland’s fortunes may be restored through his decisive action against M.

• Snyder’s roman à clef perspective situates Banquo as an ancestor of King James I, highlighting James’s legitimacy issues. Macduff’s condemnation of Macbeth as an “untitled tyrant” critiques illegitimate rule, linking the play to contemporary anxieties over rightful succession and reinforcing Macduff’s role as the agent of justice and moral order.

"bleed, bleed poor country!"

"Great tyranny"

"Wear thou thy wrongs"
Techniques:

• Personification

• Abstract noun

• Metaphor of clothing

• Macduff personifies Scotland as a wounded, bleeding entity, showing the nation’s suffering under M’s tyranny. The repetition of “bleed” emphasises the unstoppable violence and chaos caused by M while he remains in power.

• The phrase “great tyranny” conveys Macduff’s despair, presenting tyranny almost as a character that embodies both M and the corrupting force of absolute power, highlighting the loss of hope and natural order.

• Power is described through clothing imagery, echoing the earlier motif of “borrowed robes.” M may wear authority, but it is artificial and illegitimate - corruption has fused with kingship, showing that his rule is sustained by deceit rather than rightful succession.

"Macduff was from his mother's womb untimely ripp'd"
Techniques:

• Equivocation

• Nemesis

• Third person

• The witches’ equivocation manipulates M, exploiting his overconfidence. He interprets their prophecy as invincibility, but it foreshadows his defeat, illustrating Shakespeare’s warning against trusting supernatural forces. Banquo’s earlier caution about “instruments of darkness” is validated, positioning him as morally superior and highlighting M’s tragic blindness.

• Macduff acts as the agent of justice, embodying moral righteousness in contrast to M’s tyranny. Initially, M hesitates to fight, acknowledging his vulnerability, but Macduff provokes him to reclaim a final fragment of honour, even in defeat.

• The third-person phrasing - “Macduff was from his mother’s womb…” - distances him from his identity, reflecting how the trauma of his family’s slaughter has transformed him into a vehicle of divine retribution. His grief drives vengeance, culminating in M’s deserved humiliation and death.

When Malcolm tells Macduff he must "dispute it like a man" (the killing of his wife and children at the hands of Macbeth) he claims he "shall do so but he must also feel it as a man" first.
Techniques:

• Semantic shift

• Juxtaposition

• Foreshadowing

• Allegory

• Macduff challenges the Jacobean stereotype that manhood is defined solely by aggression, revenge, and stoicism. Shakespeare presents true masculinity as encompassing both strength and vulnerability—the ability to feel grief while acting decisively. This contrasts sharply with M, who twists masculinity into a justification for murder.

• M’s slaughter of Macduff’s wife and children is driven by irrational rage rather than strategy, highlighting his moral decline. Macduff’s grief becomes a counterpoint to M’s cruelty: where M kills innocents indiscriminately, Macduff mourns them with compassion, positioning him as the moral opposite to the tyrant.

• Embodies the avenging hero whose grief legitimises his actions. Unlike M’s ambition-driven violence, Macduff’s vengeance is morally justified, setting him up as the Christ-like figure who restores order by defeating the tyrant.

• Stance educates Malcolm, who initially equates manhood with aggression. By the play’s end, Malcolm demonstrates that true leadership involves empathy, honouring grief and restoring balance: “He’s worth more sorrow / And that I’ll spend for him.” Shakespeare suggests that the capacity for grief is essential to humane leadership and the restoration of natural and moral order.

"Let grief convert to anger; blunt not the heart, enrage it."
Techniques:

• Imperative command

• Metaphor of emotion

• Snyder’s perspective

• Imperative language reflects his urgency in transforming Macduff’s grief into righteous revenge, framing M’s tyranny as a force that demands violent response. By calling for immediate action, Malcolm positions himself as a moral and political agent against the chaos M has caused, emphasising the inevitability and justification of rebellion.

• Metaphor “blunt not the heart” equates the heart with a weapon, suggesting that grief must remain keen to drive decisive action. Shakespeare blurs the line between justice and vengeance, prompting the audience to question whether Malcolm’s words encourage moral restoration or perpetuate cycles of violence. This moment highlights the play’s exploration of ambition and the ethical use of power.

• Snyder interprets Macbeth as a roman à clef, with Banquo and Macduff symbolically linked to King James I’s lineage. Malcolm’s rallying of Macduff can thus be read as an endorsement of James’ rightful rule, framing the overthrow of tyranny as both morally necessary and politically aligned with the historical succession. This duality reinforces the play’s interplay between personal vengeance, justice, and the restoration of legitimate authority.

"He's worth more sorrow, and that I'll spend for him.”
Techniques:

• Metaphor of spending

• Masculine honour

• Snyder’s perspective

• Metaphor “spend” likens sorrow to currency, implying that grief is a valuable, measurable resource. By framing emotion as something to be “spent” in proportion to the person’s worth, he legitimises the expression of grief while linking it to honour. Challenges Jacobean ideals of masculinity, which demanded stoicism, and presents a model where emotional recognition is a form of moral strength rather than weakness.

• By articulating the “worth” of Macduff’s family, Malcolm reframes masculinity in terms of ethical and familial responsibility. Honour is defined not just through decisive action or revenge but also through empathetic acknowledgement of loss, positioning emotional sensitivity as integral to leadership.

• Snyder’s interpretation of Macbeth as a roman à clef situates B as an ancestor of King James I. Malcolm’s valorisation of grief can therefore be read as aligning with James’ emphasis on loyalty, familial duty, and moral integrity. By modelling grief as both appropriate and honourable, Malcolm and Macduff symbolically reinforce the legitimacy, righteousness, and moral values associated with James’ lineage, contrasting sharply with M’s corrupt tyranny.

"By the grace of Grace, We will perform in measure, time and place."
Techniques:

• Religious allusion

• Triadic structure

• Snyder’s perspective

• Phrase “By the grace of Grace” invokes divine authority, referencing the Christian idea that kingship is sanctioned by God. The repetition of “Grace” emphasises this sacred legitimacy, presenting Malcolm as the rightful ruler whose ascension restores moral and political order. His coronation offers catharsis for the audience, as he redeems Scotland from M’s tyranny.

• The triadic structure in “measure, time and place” conveys balance and rhythm, symbolising the harmony and stability Malcolm intends to restore. The repetition reinforces a sense of symmetrical justice, highlighting the reversal of Scotland’s previous disarray and marking the resolution of chaos introduced by M.

• According to Snyder’s interpretation of Macbeth as a roman à clef, B is an ancestor of King James I. Malcolm’s divinely sanctioned succession mirrors James I’s claim to the throne through the Stuart line, linking the restoration of Scotland to legitimate, divinely ordained monarchy. Shakespeare thus reinforces the moral and political legitimacy of James’ reign through Malcolm’s orderly ascent.