women in crime exam 3

defining gender based abuse (GBA)

was initially a health care term

not all abuse is violent but almost all violence is abuse

the development of GBA

1970s- 2nd wave feminist movement

1974- creation of term battered woman

1975- sexual harassment labeled as a behavior

1980- date rape was 1st identified as a problem

1990s- stalking first identified as criminal behavior

the relationship of GBA to depression

marriage is protective against depression for men

marriage is a risk factor for depression for women

Types of GBA

Intrinsically linked to sexuality- policing women’s bodies, hate crimes against LGBTQ, Global surrogacy

Forced marriage- can be used to hide underge sex/ pregnancy bc of spousal privilage

Elder abuse- committed disproportionately against women, cant consent if not able minded

Child abduction- unlawful taking of a kid from. family member

Revenge Porn- when a sexual partner takes inappropriate pics and spreads them

global surrogacy- human trafficking

egg donation- sometimes against consent

the significance of sexist culture and GBA

the expectation the girls are limited from birth

ex- gender based chores bc womens place in society is limited

toxic masculinity- negative notion of manliness that perpetuates domination, aggression, “being a man “ etc

relationship between gender inequality and GBA

they dont occur in a vacuum, both are influenced by racism, classism, ableism, heterosexism, etc

heterosexism- youre privileged bc youre heterosexual

homophobia- bias towards gay people

rates of GBA and fear of crime

men more likely to survive crime in general

women more likely to survive GBA crimes

women more afraid of crimes- socialized to be afraid

4 theoretical approaches used to explain gender differences in fear of crime

• Physical vulnerability- women are smaller

• Gender socialization- women are weaker

• Patriarchy- men use rape to control women

• Shadow of sexual assault- womens higher levels of fear of crime

history of intersectional GBA

association between being oppressed and victimized

led to stigma of being fearful of black men and boys & then whites were not held accountable

certain genders punished harsher

corporate and environmental GBA

egg donors etc

defining sexual abuse

problem of defining rape- not much goes into educating youth on sexual abuse

rape involves physical penetration w/out consent

sexual assault is any sexual, psychological, emotional coercion against consent

sexual abuse research

no quality education on sexual abuse

stranger danger or abstinence- one extreme or the other

women are socialized to view men as protectors

american native or alaskan women more at risk for rape than any other

consent

knowing, voluntary agreement to have sex that can be verbal or nonverbal

standards of attributing consent:

• affirmative behavior

• affirmative nonconsent

• affirmative language

• context clues

force

physical method of obtaining power such as hitting or holding down

coercion

psychological method such as threats, promise of rewards, or drugging

drug and alcohol facilitated sexual assault

sex with someone who is unable to consent to intercourse

drugs willingly or unwillingly taken

Levines analysis of US rape law reform

most common date rape drug is alcohol

highlighted exclusionary nature of definitions of women/ sex

• can be restrictive of married and trans women, and male victims

historical developments in defining rape/ sexual abuse

early english law- aimed to protect virgin daughters of english men until married

between 1770 and 1845 rape was defined as Penetration of the vagina by the penis where ejaculation has taken place

1970s rape was defined as be a man threatening force to obtain penile vaginal

intercourse with a woman who is not his wife- excluded many groups and marital rape

4 major legal changes to rape laws after 2nd wave of womens movement

Sexual based abusers and offenders may know each other

Broadened definition of rape

• Extends beyond penile sexual intercourse

Can be committed by any gender and any gender can be victimized

Recognize that sexual abuse can be coercive and forceful

incorrect assumptions abt rape

Rapes occur late at night

What you wear matters

Women teasing them

Women can’t be rape in marriage

Myths about alcohol and drugs

You don't blame the survivor for a decision that someone else has made

women can have a drink and be safe

rape myths

mental health- smthn is going on with them that makes them a monster

incestual relationships in rural areas

images and ways women are displayed in the media

statistics of sexual abuse

problem of disclosure- typically only tell friends or family

unacknowledged rape victims!!

racism in legal system- minorities dont want to report; deportation

recalling the incident after a prolonged amount of time

women more likely but dont always tell due to fear of victimization

child sexual abuse (CSA)

the use of a child under 18 for sexual gratification

Penetrated by adult, someone same age, more advanced

historically, people didn’t think it was frequent and until the 80s it wasn’t considered a problem

catholic priests historically

feelings of needing to be obedient to elders or will not be believed

college sexual abuse

18-24 and higher risk of being victimized

until 80s, campus assaults were said to be nonstudents coming onto campus and being predatory towards other women

aquaintance rape- greek life, sports, etc

rape more common among white frat members than african american

marital/ spousal/ partner rape

historically married women were excluded from rape definitions- seen as property

• caused bc of punishment or feelings of ownership over spouse

nebraska- first state to end exclusion of marital rape in 1976

• all states ended by 1993

only 23 states have adopted laws that allow full prosecution of sex assault by spouse

sexual harassment

title 7 and 9

occurs in workplace or schools

advancement for sexual favors- hostile environment

power differential!!

5 level continuum of sexual harassment

1. gender harassment- involves sexist remarks, putting women down, not necessarily sexual in nature

2. seductive behavior- trying to pursue a sexual advance on someone

3. sexual bribery- sex is solicited w promise of reward

4. sexual coercion- threatening w punishment for not complying to sexual demands

5. sexual assault, gross sexual imposition, indecent exposure

3 types of sexual harassment

1. traditional sex power harassment- more powerful person harasses less powerful

2. peer sexual harassment- victim and perp both are peers

3. contrapower sexual harassment - person harassing has less power than the one being harassed

CLS and sexual abuse

• officers look for victim evidence, prosecutors want winning cases, the system isnt always helpful to survivors

• CLS can victim blame

defining intimate partner abuse (IPA)

difference between domestic violence and IPA is that IPA can be current of former partner

domestic violence falls under IPA

stalking is a common tactic

defining stalking

someone who persistently pursues another individual at least 3 times in a way that instills fear

• non consensual communication

• visualization attempts

• physical proximity

• verbal/ written threats

Power and Control wheel

8 tactics used to control women

financial abuse

intimidation

isolation

male privilege

emotional abuse

victims children

use of coercion and threats

minimizing, denying, and blaming victim

Evan Stark

comprehensive treatise records the significance of non violent control tactics 

IPA tactics

physical- hitting, kicking

sexual abuse- forcing or coercing sexual contact

stalking- physically following, calling, cyberstalking

pregnancy abuse- when any of the IPA tactics are used on a pregnant woman

• The partner can have sexual jealousy of the child

psychological/ emotional abuse- child abuse, family/ friend abuse, social isolation

• includes love bombing

At risk groups under IPA

immigrants- fear of deportation

LGBTQ+- under threat of being outed

ppl w disabilities- 3 categories: emotional abuse, neglect, control/ restraint

stalking tactics

traditional- physically spying, calling, driving by

cyberstalking

threats

IPA and stalking victim/ survivors potential risk factors

race and ethnicity

childhood victimization- social learning

parenting status- kid or no

immigration status

physically or mentally disabled

trans or intersex- particularly trans female

seeking help

over 2/3 of IPA survivors sought formal or informal help

women w severe physical abuse- more likely

Women who were physically and sexually abused- less likely

more likely to seek help when stalked and physically abused

help and safety seeking

going to shelters or hospitals to seek help when abuse intensifies

more likely to occur when abuse is noticed by someone

survivor circumstances

degrees of abuse to victims and children

victim financial and housing resources

victims social and mental health

victims social support

issues with victim blaming

making victim feel crazy

picking sides with friends

making victim feel isolated- mental health issues can follow

reasons to stay/ leave can be the same

children

finances

love

fear of what will happen

Women protection reforms

1970s

Walkers Cycle theory of violence

1st stage- tension building

2nd- IPA event

3rd- honeymoon

cycle back

longest phase- tension

shortest phase- IPA event