Anthropology- Chapter 2 Reading

Key terms from the chapter 2 reading

Allele

“A nonidentical DNA sequence found in the same gene location on a homologous chromosome, or gene copy, that codes for the same trait but produces a different phenotype”

Artificial selection

“The identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals, and the subsequent steps taken to enhance and perpetrate those traits in future generations”

Binomial nomenclature

“A system of classification in which a species of animal or plant receives a name consisting of two terms: the first identifies the genus to which it belongs, and the second identifies the species”

Carrying Capacity

The number of living organisms, including animals, crops, and humans that a geographic area can support without environmental degradation

Catastrophism

The theory that the Earth’s geology has largely been shaped by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope. Compare to uniformitarianism

Comparative anatomy

Georges-Louis Leclerc’s technique of comparing similar anatomical structures across different species

Creationism

The belief that the universe and all living organisms originate from specific acts of divine creation, as in the Biblical account, rather than by natural processes such as evolution

Empiricism

The idea that all learning and knowledge derives from experience and observation. It became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries in western Europe due to the rise of experimental science

Evolution

In a biological sense, this term refers to cumulative inherited change in a population of organisms through time. More specifically, evolution is defined as a change in allele (gene) frequencies from one generation to the next among members of an interbreeding population

Extant

: Still in existence; surviving

Extinct

Said of a species, family, or other group of animals or plants that has no living members; no longer in existence

Fixity of Species

The idea that a species, once created, remains unchanged over time

Gene:

A sequence of DNA that provides coding information for the construction of proteins

Genetic drift

: Random changes in allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next

Gene flow

The introduction of new genetic material into a population through interbreeding between two distinct populations

Gene pool

The entire collection of genetic material in a breeding community that can be passed from one generation to the next

Genotype

: The genotype of an organism is its complete set of genetic material—its unique sequence of DNA. Genotype also refers to the alleles or variants an individual carries in a particular gene or genetic location

Hybrid

Offspring of parents that differ in genetically determined traits.

Intelligent design

A pseudoscientific set of beliefs based on the notion that life on earth is so complex that it cannot be explained by the scientific theory of evolution and therefore must have been designed by a supernatural entity

Macroevolution

Microevolution

Changes in the frequency of a gene or allele in an interbreeding population

Modern synthesis

The mid–20th century merging of Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution that resulted in a unified theory of evolution.

Natural selection

The natural process by which the survival and reproductive success of individuals or groups within an interbreeding population that are best adjusted to their environment leads to the perpetuation of genetic qualities best suited to that particular environment at that point in time

Phenotype

The detectable or visible expression of an organism’s genotype.

Scientific method

A method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting of systematic observation, measurement, experimentation, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Speciation

The process by which new genetically distinct species evolve from the main population, usually through geographic isolation or other barriers to gene flow

Species

A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and denoted by a Latin binomial (e.g., Homo sapiens)

Uniformitarianism

The theory that changes in the earth’s crust during geologic history have resulted from the action of continuous and uniform processes—such as wind, precipitation, evaporation, condensation, erosion, and volcanic action—that continue to act in the present. Compare to catastrophism

4th century BCE-Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

“Founder of Biology.” Publishes History of Animals, a biological classification system of over 500 animals based on structure, physiology, reproduction, and behavior. Also creates the “Great Chain of Being,” ranking species and placing humans closest to God

8th–9th century CE- Al-Jahiz (776–868 CE)

Writes seven-volume Book of Animals, which includes animal classifications and food chains. Introduces concept of biological evolution and its mechanisms

1011–1021- Ibn al Haythem (965–1040 CE)

“Father of Modern Optics.” Uses experimental science to catalog how vision works and discovers laws of reflection and refraction. Publishes Book of Optics and invents camera obscura, the foundation for modern photography.

1620- Francis Bacon (1561–1626)

“Father of Empiricism.” PublishesThe Novum Annum, formulating the scientific method based on observation and inductive reasoning.

1686- John Ray (1627–1705)

First to publish a biological definition of species in History of Plants.

1749- Comte de Buffon (1707–1788)

Publishes Histoire Naturelle, comparing anatomical structures across species using methods still in use today. Inspires Lamarck and Cuvier

1758- Carl von Linne (Carolus Linnaeus) (1707–1778)

Introduces system of binomial nomenclature. Publishes Systema Naturae, the tenth edition of which introduces the designation Homo sapiens for humans.

1788- James Hutton (1726–1797)

“Father of Geology.” Publishes Theory of the Earth; introduces idea of Deep Time; explains how features of the earth were formed through the actions of rain, wind, rivers, and volcanic eruptions.

1798- Thomas Malthus (1766–1834)

Economist and “Father of Statistics.” Publishes An Essay on Population; introduces concept of carrying capacity; explains how populations outstrip the food supply, leaving some individuals to die off; inspires Darwin’s idea of “natural selection.”

1809- Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829)

Publishes theory of the Inheritance of acquired characteristics; is the first Western scientist to propose a mechanism explaining how traits change in species over time and to recognize the importance of the physical environment in acting on species and their survival.

1810- Georges Cuvier (1769–1832)

Paleontologist/comparative anatomist; proved species went extinct; proposed the Theory of Catastrophism

1830- Charles Lyell (1797–1875)

Establishes geology as a science. Publishes first edition of The Principles of Geology(1830–33); issuing 12 total editions in his lifetime, each updated according to new scientific data

1858- Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913)

Sends scientific paper to Darwin titled “On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type,” essentially espousing the concept of natural selection; a reading of the papers by both Wallace and Darwin to the Linnaean Society is conducted by Lyell.

1859- Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

Publishes On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection(1859).

1865- Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)

Publishes Experiments in Plant Hybridization(1865), outlining the fundamentals of genetic inheritance

1889- August Weismann (1834–1914)

Publishes Essays Upon Heredity(1889), disproving the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Publishes The Germ Plasm (1892), postulating an early idea of inheritance through sexual reproduction.

1937- Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900–1975)

One of the founders of the Modern Synthesis of biology and genetics. Publishes Genetics and the Origin of Species(1937). Documents a genetic model of speciation through reproductive isolation.