Biology exam review

taxonomy

-Taxonomy: identifies names and classifies species based on natural features. Carolus Linnaeus is known as the father of taxonomy

Binomialnomenclature

-Binomial nomenclature: gives each species a two part latin name, first part is genus, second part is species, example: Homo sapiens

classification

-Classification: the grouping of organisms based on a set of criteria that helps to organize relationships

rank

-Rank: a level in classification, such as phylum or order

taxon

-Taxon: a named group of organisms such as phylum Chordata

Evidence of Relatedness

-Anatomy is one method of evidence of species relationships, this could look at bone structure and internal systems
- Physiology proves relatedness, how they work, species chemical function and internal processes
-DNA evidence
-Phylogenetic trees: a branching diagram used to show the evolutionary relationship among species
Helps scientists trace diseases, easily narrow search to closely related organisms

Prokaryotic cells

Includes bacteria and archaea
1-10 um
Not bound by a membrane
Genome made up of a single chromosome
Not meiosis or mitosis
Aesexual reproduction common
Unicellular
Mitochondria and other membrane organelles absent

Eukaryotic cells

Includes protists, plants, fungi, and animals
100-1000 um
Dna in nucleus bounded by a membrane
Genome made up of several chromosomes
By mitosis and meiosis
Sexual reproduction common
Multicellular
Mitochondria and other membrane bound organelles present

viruses

-Functionally dependant of the internal working of cells, either prokaryotic or eukaryotic
-Not capable of living outside of cells, outside a cell viruses are dormant
-Not cellular, don't have membrane bound organelles
Can cause diseases or illness, which can spread to populations
-a structure that contains strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat
-Viruses can reproduce with the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle

lyctic cycle

Lytic cycle: the replication process in viruses in which the virus's genetic material uses the copying mechanism of the host cell to make new viruses

lysogenic cycle

 viral DNA enters host cell and becomes part of its chromosomes

Endosymbiosis

Endosymbiosis: a theory that once a cell engulfs another different cell and the engulfed cell survives and becomes an integral part of the cell that engulfed it.

origins of cells

Evidence from the mitochondria and chloroplasts:
-Membrane structures are similar to living prokaryotes
-ribosomes are similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic
-reproduce through binary fission
-both contain their own circular chromosome and gene sequence that resemble living prokaryotes

how different groups are classified - bacteria and archea

Classified by shape, cell wall structure, food source, energy source
- Shape: Cocci (round), bacilli (rod shaped), Spirilla (spiral shaped)
- Patterns: diplo (pairs), staphyloma (clusters), stepto (chain)
- Thermophile (heat lover)
- Halophiles (salt lover)
- Acidophiles (acid lover)
- Gram negative will stain purple for thick protein and gram negative will stain pink for thin layer.

how protista are classified

Protozoa (animal-like) they consume other organisms for food and are usually parasites.
- Algae (plant like) heterotrophs ingest other organisms they absorb from other organisms
- Slime and water molds (fungus-like) contain pigments in their chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis and have different shapes and sizes.

how fungus are classified

-They are classified into five groups based on reproduction and the structure of the fruiting body they produce.
-Fungi that are not known to reproduce sexually are placed in a single phylum.
-The groups that use sexual reproduction are placed into four phyla.
Fungi imperfecti- grow on fruit
Chytrids- aquatic with flagella
Zygospore- common on foods
Sac fungi- mildews on leaves
Club fungi- mushrooms on lawns

How animals are classified

-Invertebrates or vertebrates
- Levels of organization
- Number of body layers
- Symmetry (bilateral and radial)
- Body cavity
- Segmentation
- Movement
- Reproduction

how plantae are classified

Nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants, seed producing vascular plants.
Based on their characteristics and if they have vascular tissue or seeds.

different methods of reproduction

\-Bacteria and Archaea use binary fission where a cell grows and makes a copy of its original and when it reaches a single size it elongates, separating the original chromosome and its copy. -Conjugation is another method where new genetic combinations are made to adapt to the changing condition

\-Animalia reproduce sexually through gametic reproduction -Zygotes are produced through external or internal fertilization -Mitosis: Two daughter cells are created that are genetically identical asexual. -Meiosis: Genetic reduction and genetic recombination creation of genetically different daughter cells

kingdom bacteria and groups within

Prokaryote
Unicellular
Autotrophs and heterotrophs
Asexual
Groups:
Plasmids (small DNA loops), endospores (dormant bacterial cell)

kingdom archea and groups within

Prokaryote
Unicellular
Autotrophs and heterotrophs
Asexual
Groups:
Plasmids (small DNA loops), endospores (dormant bacterial cell)

kingdom protista and groups within

-Eukaryote
-Unicellular and multicellular
-Autotrophs and heterotrophs
-Asexual and sexual
-Groups:
Multicellular: Algae (brown algae, red algae, green algae)
Unicellular: animal like protists (cercozoans, ciliates, flagellates), fungus like protists (slime molds, water molds), plant like protists (diatoms, euglenoids)

kingdom plantae and groups within

Eukaryote
Multicellular
Autotrophs
Sexual
Groups:
Non-vascular plants (mosses, liverworts etc.)
Seedless vascular plants (whisk ferns, club mosses, ferns)
Either a gymnosperm (non-enclosed seeds), angiosperm (seeds enclosed)

kingdom fungi and groups within

Eukaryote
Mostly multicellular
Heterotrophs
Sexual
Fungi groups:
Fungi imperfecti (moldy fruit), chytrids (parasites on decaying material), zygospore (fuzzy mold), sac fungi (spores), club fungi (fruiting bodies), lichens (result of mutualistic relationship between fungus and a plant)

kingdom animalia and groups within

Eukaryote
Multicellular
No cell wall
Heterotrophs
Sexual
groups:
Invertebrates
Sponges and cnidarians, Worms, molluscs, echinoderms (starfish), arthropods (have an exoskeleton, ex. Insects and spiders)
Vertebrates
Fish, amphibians, reptiles birds, mammals

George-Louis

Proposed that species could change overtime and these changes could lead to new organisms

carl linnaeues

Founder of biological nomenclature; few species led to the creation of many species through hybridization and inbreeding

george cuvier

Proposed catastrophism; idea that global catastrophes in the past had repeatedly caused the extinction of species that were then replaced by newly created ones

james hutton

Created actualism; theory that geographical land formations grow from slow processes (ex. erosion)

charles lyell

Created uniformitarianism; earth's surface is always changing through slow and slight processes

contributions to evolution conclusions

-Earth must be unimaginably old
-Dramatic change could result over such extremes of time through slow, slight processes

lamarck

-Changes that are acquired by an organism during its lifetime are a response to local environment conditions and these changes can be passed to the offspring
Ex. giraffes make their neck longer out of a need to get food

-"line of descent," or progression, in which a series of fossils (from older to more recent) led to modern species.

-He believed that species increased in complexity over time, until they achieved a level of perfection.

-Lamarck Hypothesized organisms would become progressively better adapted to their environments.

-Suggested that body parts not used would eventually disappear. This idea is called use and disuse

darwin

-Species on other continents were different from species in Europe
-Fossils of extinct animals were similar to living representatives
-Galapagos island species are similar to mainland south american species
-Galapagos finch species were similar but varied from island to island
-Artificial selection showed that traits could be passed from parents
-Darwin proposed that species can change over time,
-new species come from preexisting species,
- all species share a common ancestor.

Evidence for evolution - fossils

-Fossils: remains and traces of past life that are found in sedimentary rock which creates a fossil record
-Fossils found in layers closer to the surface are younger and more similar to modern species
-Fossils appear in chronological order as you move deeper

Transitional fossils - intermediary links between groups

Vestigial structures - primitive structures still present in modern organisms

evidence for evolution - biogeography

-study of the past and present geographical distribution of species populations
-Geographically close environments are more likely to hold related species than geographically separated environments
-Animals found on islands resemble those found on the closest continent

evidence of evolution - anatomy

-homologous structures have similar structural components and origin but now have different functions
-2Analogous structures - have similar functions but are structured differently

evidence of evolution - embryology

Embryology: study of early, pre birth stages of an organism's development can be used to show evolutionary relationships

evidence of evolution - dna

DNA: the relationships between species are reflected in their DNA, if 2 species have similar DNA patterns, it indicates they must have a common ancestors

mutation - evolution

-Mutation randomly introduces new alleles into a population
-Changes allele frequency
-Occurs in DNA of the individual - that has possibility to affect the whole gene pool

gene flow

-Gene flow occurs between 2 different interbreeding populations that have different allele frequencies
-Gene flow may change allele frequencies in either or both populations through "flow" or movement

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genetic drift

-Genetic drift refers to random change in genetic variation from generation to generation due to chance
-Allows for a change in allele frequencies

natural selection

-Natural selection is the result of environment selecting for individuals in a population with certain traits that make them better suited to survive and reproduce
-Over many generations frequencies of alleles change resulting in significant changes in the characteristics of a population

sympatric speciation

Speciation in which populations within the same geographical areas diverge and become reproductively isolated

allopatric speciation

Speciation in which a population is split into two or more isolated groups by a geographical barrier

variation

Differences between individuals which may be structural, functional or physiological

diveristy

Global variety of species and ecosystems and the ecological processes

digestion requirements

1.A digestive tract for food to travel through
2.Mechanical means to move the food through the tract
3.The chemical digestion of food
4. A digestive system comprised of a group of organs working together (liver, pancreas, bladder)
5.The roles played by nutrients, diet and health

role of water

-Transporting dissolved nutrients into cells that line the small intestine
-Flushing toxins from cells
-Lubricating tissues and joints
-Forming essential body fluids; blood and mucus
-Regulating body temp; sweating
-Eliminating waste

autotrophs

nourish themselves (ex. Plants w/photosynthesis)

heterotrophs

depend on organic molecules consumed from other living organisms to live

filter feeders

aquatic animals that use their body to gather organisms, then filters through them to digest (clams)

substrate feeders

live in or on their food source and eat through it as they go (caterpillars)

fluid feeders

obtain food by sucking or licking nutrient rich fluids (butterflies)

bulk feeders

ingest large pieces of food using; fangs, tentacles, claws or jaws (animals and humans)

4 stages of digestion

1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Elimination

alimentary canal

a long open tube with an opening at the mouth and the anus (earthworm)

gastrovasucular canal

the food enters and exits through a single opening (sponges, jellyfish)

mechanical digestion

- teeth to breakdown food and further broken down in the digestive tract by muscle contractions

chemical digestion

fluid releasing glands in the mouth and digestive tract to break down macromolecules further

the mouth

first part of digestion
Teeth - used to break down material
Uvula - prevents food from entering pharynx (dangly thing at back of mouth)
Saliva - begins chemical digestion

trachea/windpipe

forced up when you swallow and tongue rolls back for the epiglottis to close and prevent food from entering the trachea

the esophagus

food leaves the mouth and enters a tube called the esophagus

the stomach

**used to digest and breakdown food into a liquid called CHYME**

small intestine

1. Duodenum - pancreatic and bile ducts open into it for further chemical breakdown
2. Jejunum - breaks down remaining proteins and carbs for absorption
3. Ileum - absorbs nutrients and pushes undigested material into the large intestine

large inestine

- the large and small intestine are separated by a valve/sphincter
-No digestion occurs in the large intestine
-Is shorter but has a MUCH larger diameter
Consists of
1. Caecum - blind end of the large intestine (connects to appendix
2. Colon - comprised of ascending, transverse and descending colon (water is dissolved and minerals are absorbed
3. Rectum and anal canal - used to store and release fecal matter

Peristalsis

Series of wavelike involuntary contractions in the digestive tract

accessory organs - liver

largest organ in the abdominal cavity
-Produces bile and breaks down fats
-Breaks down and recycles RBC
-Stores excess chemicals
-Detoxifies alcohol

gallbladder

the storage warehouse for bile produced in the liver

the pancreas

the source of several enzymes and neutralizes chyme before entering the duodenum

respitory system

- all organisms have the ability to respire or exchange but not all can breathe
- oxygen is needed for cellular respiration
-all processes involved in bringing in oxygen, making it available to each cell and eliminating carbon

requirements for respiration

Area of animals body where gas is exchanged must have a large surface area
Respiration must take place in a moist environment

mechanics of breathing

-Brain - respiratory control center; regulates when inhalation and exhalation occurs, and the volume of air needed
-The muscle diaphragm and rib muscles control the air pressure inside the lungs
-The lung - characteristic respiratory system of breathing vertebrates; consists of 3 musts:
. 1 or 2 lungs that have a moist respiratory surface
. Some means of forcibly bringing air in contact with the lungs surface
. A circulatory system to carry gasses to the other cells in the body

upper respiratory tract

-Air enters mouth and is warmed and moistened (protects lungs)
-Air passes through pharynx then to the larynx (voicebox) and esophagus
- The glottis is the opening of the trachea (windpipe) which is protected by the epiglottis
- Upper tract is all lined with ciliated mucus cells

lower respiratory tract

-Trachea branches into 2 smaller passages called bronchi (each bronchus enters one lung)
-Each bronchus then divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles
-Each bronchiole ends up at a grape like structure of tiny sacs called alveoli (gas exchange occurs here)

main functions the cirulatory system

-Transport gasses, nutrients and waste material
-Regulate internal temperature and transport chemical substances vital to health and function throughout the body
-Protects against blood loss, injury, and against disease

major structures of the circulatory system

Heart - muscular organ acting as a pump
Blood vessels - a system of tubes through which the fluid medium can travel
Blood - the fluid medium that transports vital components

open transport system

transport system in which the blood does not always stay contained within the blood cells

closed transport system

the blood is pumped around the body within a network of blood vessels, it does NOT bathe the cells directly

single circ system

blood enters and exits heart once per cycle

double circ system

blood enters in and out of heart twice per cycle

complete circ system

no mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

incomplete circ system

blood mixes

circulation cycles

Cardiac circulation - within the heart
Pulmonary circulation - within the lungs
Systemic circulation - within the body

transport medium

blood

arteries

-transport blood away from the heart
-extremely elastic and thich walls

veins

-transport blood to the heart
-not very elastic and thin walls

pulmondary veins

carry oxugenated blood

capillieries

site of gas exchange

homeostatis

-Our bodies remain warm in cold environments
-Homeotherms - constant blood temp (mammals and birds)
-Poikilotherms - their body temp fluctuates depending on the temp of the external environment (fish, reptiles, amphibians)

vasoconstriction

less blood flow , (scared)

vasodilation

more blood flow , (nervous)

the heart

\-Mammal hearts are divided into 4 chambers
Right & left - atriums
Right & left - ventricles
\-Blood enters heart through the atria and leaves through the ventricles

\-Atria are thin walled
\-Ventricles have thick walls

right av valve

tricuspid valve

left av valve

biscuspid valve

sa node

bundle of muscle tissue located in the right atrium that stimulates the heart muscles to contract and relax rhythmically

av node

located on the partition between the 2 ventricles that makes them contract in unison

dna structure

-Made up of 2 spiral strands called a double helix
-Composed of a phosphate group, a sugar group and a base
-Individual units of each strand of DNA is called NUCLEOTIDES

sex chromosome

an x or y that determines the genetic sex of the organism

autosome

a chromosome that is not involved in determining sex of organism