MCAT psych/soc

internal validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study
- extent to which we can say that the change in outcome variable (dependent variable) is due to the intervention

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

threats to internal validity

- impression management: participants adapt their response based on social norms or perceived researcher expectations, self fulfilling prophecy
- Confounding variables: extraneous variables not account for in the study, lack of useful control
- Lack of reliability: measurement tools do not measure what they purport, lack consistency
-Sampling bias: sampling criteria not random
-Attrition effects: participants drop out of study

Threats to external validity

-experiment doesnt reflect real work: lab setups that don't translate to real world, lack of generalizability
- selection criteria: too restrictive.inclusive criteria for participants, sample not representative
- situational effects
- lack of statisitical power

situational effects

presence of laboratory conditions changes outcome

selection criteria

too restrictive of inclusion/exclusion criteria for participants

Experiment doesn't reflect real world

laboratory setups that don't translate to the real world, lack of generalizability

impression management

participants adapt their responses based on social norms or perceived researcher expectations; self fulfilling prophecy
- Hawthorne effect
- concious or unconcious process whereby we attempt to manage our own image by influencing the perceptions of others

Confounding variables

extraneous variables not accounted for in the study; another variable offers an alternative explanation for results
lack of useful control

lack of reliability

measurement tools do not measure what they purport to, lack of consistency

Sampling bias

selection crietia is not random. Population used for sample does not meet conditions for statistical test

Attrition effects

participant fatigue; participants drop out of study

lack of statistical power

sample groups have high variability; sample size is too small

Non-experimental designs

research designs that lack manipulation of the independent variable and random assignment
- lack control group
ex) observational studies, ethnographic studies, twin studies, twin studies, archival studies, phenomenological studies, case studies, longitudinal studies

observational studies

studies in which the researcher does not interfere with or manipulate variables

Ethnographic studies

observational studies that take a deep-dive into a particular culture or subculture

Twin studies and heritability

Studies that attempt to establish the relative effects of nature and nurture on behavior

Archival Studies, Biographical Studies

studies that use the historical record to understand events (archival) and people (biographical)

Phenomenological studies

studies that attempt to understand conscious experiences from a first-person perspective

Case studies

detailed exploration of one individual case or occurrence of a phenomenon

Longitudinal studies

long term studies that take measurements at different time intervals

Flaw in study design

- experimental: didnt do enough to control variables
- nonexperimental: did too much and got in the way

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
- not being manipulated

operational definition

a formal definition used for research that can be measured by the experiments

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
- 0 - weakest correlatino
+/-1 is strongest
- correlation DOES NOT EQUAL causation

Positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

Negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Sociological Theory

a set of ideas that explains a range of human behavior and a variety of social and societal events

Functionalism

A theory that views society as a complex system composed of many individual parts working together to maintain solidarity and social stability
- compares society to a living organism (goal to work together in a society) (cells and systems that work together to maintain homeostasis) (individuals, families, communities groups)
- Macro-level
- Emile Durkheim - dynamic EQ

dynamic equilibrium sociology

many independent parts working together to maintain stability. healthy societies can achieve and maintain this equilibrium, unhealthy ones would not.

Emile Durkheim

-Father of sociology, pioneer of modern social research and established the field as separate and distinct from psychology and politics
-Major proponent of functionalism
-Argued that modern society was more complex than primitive societies because they were all similar, shared a common language. Even when people were dissimilar, they relied on each other to make society function.
- social structure is a network of statuses connected by associated roles
- individual is only significaqnt in status, social relationships and behavior

Manifest function

intended and recognized consequence of an institution

Latent function

the unrecognized and unintended consequences of an institution

conflict theory

A theory that views society as a competition for limited resources. In society individuals and groups compete for soical, political and material resources
-macro- doesnt take into account altruism
-karl marx
- max weber
- focuses too much on conflict and not roles of stability in society
- limited because ignores non-forced labor
-more from prospective of those who lack power
- focuses on economic factors as sole source of conflict

Karl Marx

founder of modern communism
- societies progress through class struggle between those who control production and those who provide the manpower for production
-capitalism produces internal tensions which will ultimately destroy capitalist society to be replaced by socialism

Max Weber

German sociologist that regarded the development of rational social orders as humanity's greatest achievement. Saw bureaucratization (the process whereby labor is divided into an organized community and individuals acquire a sense of personal identity by finding roles for themselves in large systems) as the driving force in modern society.
- a capitalist society does lead to conflict but the collapse of capitalism is not inevitable
- there could be more than one source of conflict such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social status

Symbolic Interactionism

a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions
- analyzes society subjective meaning that people impose on objects, events and behaviors
- society is socially constructed through human interpretation and these form social bonds
-humans ascribe meaning to things and act toward those things based on their ascribed meaning
-communication via language allows humans to generate meaning through social interaction with each other and society
-Humans modify meaning through an interpretive thought process
- self is a concept of language
- micro level
- neglects macro level
- ignores social institutions on interactions

Social Constructionism

explores how individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality
- we actively shape our society through social interactions, social institutions and knowledge created by individuals interacting within the system rather than having any inherent truth of their own
- social construct
must be maintained, reaffirmed and passed along through generations
- micro

social construct

A concept or practice that is construct of a group. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value in nature.

Rational Choice Theory

A theory that suggests that individuals make decisions by comparing the costs and benefits of various courses of action we try to maximize benefits and reduce cost
- anticipate outcomes
- people dont always act in rational ways
- micro

Social exchange theory

- specific to the individual and how they interact with each other
- a theory that suggests that individuals assign rewards (benefits) and punishments (costs) to interactions and prefer those with the greatest personal benefit
profit = rewards - cost
- micro

Feminist Thoery

Encompasses a variety of perspectives on the different experiences and treatment of women vs men
- macro and micro

First wave feminism

right to vote; right to divorce; right to property, right to work for wages

second wave feminism

women's liberation, gender equality, sexual rights, reproductive rights, resisting patriarchal culture

third-wave feminism

focused on area of concern left untheorized by the 1st and 2nd wave. Intersectionality

Intersectionality

the study of overlapping systems of oppression and can be used to understand how systematic injustic and social inequality occur on a multidimensional basis

Social institution

Standardized set of social norms organized to preserve a basic societal value
ex) education, family, gov, medicine, religion
- rooted in human nature since it is universal

Education

A formal process of learning in which some people consciously teach while others adopt the social role of learner.
- development of culture and encourage social integration
- promotes inequality - hidden curriculum, teacher expectancy, unequal education

hidden curriculum

unintentional lessons taught in school about norms, values and beliefs

teacher expectancy effect

expectations about how an individual .group will perform academically that impacts the teachers behavior toward the individual/group and the results of the individual/group conforming to expectations

Educational segregation and stratification

an unequal distribution of academic resources that reinforces class differences

Family

a socially- defined set of relationships between at least 2 individuals related by birth, marriage, adoption or some other agreed-upon relationship

Religion

A unified system of beliefs and practices shared by a group of believers pertaining to the supernatural and to norms about the right way to behave
- treat religion as a social rather than supernatural phenomenon

Government

an institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules of a society as well as a regulating relations with other societies

economy

set of arrangements by which a society produces, distributes and consumes goods, services and other resources

Health and Medicine

responsible for defining and treating illness among members of society. A society's medical establishment should promote health the total well-being of its people

medicalization

the process whereby human conditions come to be defined and treated as medical conditions
- drive by new information/discoveries, changing social attitudes or economic considerations, development of new medications or treatments

Sick role

individuals who are ill have certain rights and responsibilities in society. If an ill individual cannot fulfill the same duties that a person in good health can, society allows for a reasonable amount of deviant behavior
- right to not be blamed for illness
- right to not be responsible for illness
- obligation to get better
- obligation to seek treatment and cooperate

Conditional sick role

condition/illness is temporary

Unconditional legitimate sick role

condition/illness is incurable

illegitimate sick role

condtiion/illness that is stigmatized by others

life expectancy

the number of years from birth an individual is expected to live on average

relative poverty

inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

absolute poverty

an inability to secure the basic necessities of life

socioeconomic status

The social standing of an individual in comparison to others in that society. It is based on education, income and occupation.
- prestige
- power
-property

availability of healthcare

presence of resources across the US

Accessibility of healthcare

the ability for someone to obtain existing resources across the US

social stratification

a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy

caste system

- lower social mobility
-less dependent on effort
- social status defined at birth

Class system

- some degress of social mobility
-social status determined by birth and individual merit

Meritocracy

-higher social mobility
- more dependent on effort
- social status based on individual merit

Social mobility

Movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another

intergenerational mobility

the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next

intragenerational social mobility

a change in social position compared to other unrelated people in their generation

social reproduction

Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next

Social mobility

influenced by
-Physical capital
- cultural capital
-social capital

Physical capital

money, property, other physical assets

Social capital

non-financial characteristic evaluated by society

Cultural capital

who you know, social networks

Demographic factors

age, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, immigration status

gender identity

extent to which one identifies with a particular gender, gender identity is often shaped early in life through social interactions
-fluid in young children
-formed in ages 3-6
- 5-7 gender identity becomes rigid = consolidation
- after 7 peak of rigidity fluidity returns and socially defined gender roles relax

Race

- concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of physical characteristics
- biological or genetic characteristics
- shared geneaology due to geographical isolation
- distinguishing factors through physical traits
- conflicts: prejudice

Ethnicity

- shared cultural traditions
- shared cultural traits and group history
- share linguistic and religious traits
- shared genealogy (actual or presumed)
- distinguishing factors like belief, practices and traditions
-conflict: between ethnic groups

sexual orientation

social construct that exists along a continuum with the extremes being exclusive attraction to the opposite gender or sex and exclusive attraction to the same gender or sex

Heterosexism

discrimination or prejudice against homosexuals on the assumption that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation
homophobic

immigration status

A person's position in terms of legal rights and residency when entering and residing in a country that is not that person's legal country of origin.

Culture

everything that is made learned and or shared by the members of a society including beliefs, behaviors, values, and material objects
- material
-non material

Material culture

concrete visible parts of a culture such as food, clothing, cars, weapons and building

Non material culture

intangible aspects of a culture such as values or beliefs these concepts and ideas shape who we are and make us different from members of other societies

Value

a cultures principles about how things should be and differ greatly from societyto society
- support beliefs

Belief

specific ideas that people feel to be true

rituals

all standardized behavior or traditions that mean something in a culture like religious rituals, rites of passage, atonement and purification rites, oaths of allegiance, dedication ceremonies, presidential inauguration, marriages and funerals, graduations, sporting, events etc

symbols

cultural representations of reality

Language

a system of verbal and written expression that is culturally specific and meant to convey meaning about the world. most powerful of human symbols

assimilation

cultural assimilation is the process by which a person or a group's language and or culture come to resemble those of another group

multiculturalism

the preservation of various cultures or cultural identities within a single unified society

ethnocentrism

belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture

cultural relativism

the principle that an individuals human belief's and activites should be understood by others in terms of that individuals own culture

types of cultures

dominant, subcultures and countercultures