MAIN TOPIC # 7 : Expanding Social Horizons

Family Relationships

provide the foundation for a child's emotional, social, and moral development, influencing how they form connections, handle conflict, and understand values throughout life.

Families

originally developed to protect and nurture children, who are dependent for many years

Modern families

provide economic and emotional support, raising and caring for children remains their most important function.

Direct and indirect actions

parents shape their children’s development through

Behavior, attitudes, and interests.

children also influence their parents through their

Warm and responsive

some parents are warm, affectionate, and deeply involved, showing care and responding to their children’s emotional needs.

Hostile & uninvolved

prioritizing their own needs over their children’s

Extreme Control

some parents are overly controlling, trying to manage every aspect of their children’s lives.

No control

allowing their children to act freely without seeking permission or concern for consequences.

Authoritarian parenting

combines high control with little warmth.

Authoritative parenting

combines a fair degree of parental control.

Permissive parenting

offers warmth and caring but little parental control.

Uninvolved parenting

provides neither warmth nor control.

Authoritarian parenting, Authoritative parenting, Permissive parenting, Uninvolved parenting

Parenting Styles

European American

parents value happiness and independence in their children, believing these are best fostered through warmth and moderate control—characteristics of authoritative parenting.

Asian and Latin American

cooperation and collaboration are valued more than individualism.

China

values emphasize emotional restraint for family harmony, so parents tend to show less affection compared to those in the United States.

Direct instruction, Modeling, Feedback

Parental Behavior:

Direct instruction

• parents often tell their children what to do.

• direct instruction and coaching are particularly powerful when paired with modeling.

Modeling

children learn a great deal from parents simply by watching them.

Feedback

parents indicate whether a behavior is appropriate and should and should continue or inappropriate and should stop.

Reinforcement and Punishment

two general forms of feedback

Reinforcement

any action that increases the likelihood of the response that it follows

Punishment

any action that discourages the recurrence of the response that it follow

Age and Temperament and behavior

Two characteristics of children that contribute to the influence of the reciprocal influence

Age

parenting changes as children grow.

• Temperament and behavior

a child’s temperament can have a powerful effect on parental behavior.

Siblings

are brothers and sisters who share the same parents or live together in the same family environment

Age gap,

factors Affecting Sibling Relationships

Gender

siblings tend to share more activities and interests.

Parental treatment

favoritism can cause jealousy and competition.

1. Family structure 

divorce, remarriage, or blended families can shift sibling roles.

Positive and Negative Sibling Interaction

Types of Sibling Interactions

Positive Sibling Interaction

• enhances social competence and emotional regulation.

• encourages teamwork and responsibility within the home.

Negative Sibling Interaction

rivalry, jealousy, and conflict can cause emotional distress.

Adoption

the legal process of transferring parental rights and responsibilities from biological parents to adoptive parents

Divorce

the legal ending of a marriage. it can affect children’s emotional stability, behavior, and sense of security.

Blended family

forms when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new marriage.

Physical abuse, Emotional abuse, Sexual abuse, and Neglect

Child maltreatment

Physical Abuse

intentional bodily harm such as hitting, shaking, or burning.

Emotional Abuse

verbal assault, rejection, humiliation, or isolation.

Sexual Abuse

involvement of a child in sexual acts or exploitation.

Neglect

failure to meet basic physical, emotional, or educational needs.

Poverty and Social Isolation 

what social conditions seem to foster maltreatment?

Poverty

parents under financial stress (e.g., worrying about groceries or rent) are more likely to react harshly or punish physically.

Social Isolation 

families cut off from relatives or neighbors lack emotional and practical support, leaving children more vulnerable.

Peer

relationships play a major role in social and emotional development during middle childhood.

Age, sex, race, and attitudes.

friendships are usually similar in

Friendship

a voluntary relationship between two people involving mutual liking.

Early childhood friendships

• children begin forming friendships around age 4–5.

• are based on shared play and simple liking

Middle childhood friendship

• children grow (ages 8–11), friendships become more complex, involving trust and assistance.

• friends support one another, keep promises, and help in times of need.

Adolescents friendship

emphasize intimacy, loyalty, and emotional sharing.

Adolescents

become more open to opposite-sex friendships as they mature.

Peer Groups

as children grow, friendships expand into groups based on common interests, age, or social status.

Clique

• a small group of close friends (same age, sex, and interests) who regularly interact.

• help develop social skills and identity through close interactions.

Crowd

larger group of adolescents who share similar values and reputations

Group Structure

• within groups, some teens naturally take on leadership roles.

• leaders often have popularity, confidence, and social skills.

Prosocial leaders and Antisocial leaders

two types of group structure prosocial leaders

Prosocial leader

encourage positive behavior

Antisocial leaders

promote risky or bullying behaviors

Popularity and Rejection

children and teens differ in how they are liked or disliked by peers.

Popular children, Rejected children, Controversial children, Neglected children, Average children 

Five types of social status:

Average children

receive some likes and dislikes, but not extreme.

Neglected children

neither liked nor disliked; tend to be quiet or shy.

Controversial children

liked by some and disliked by others; may be popular yet hostile.

Rejected children

disliked by many classmates, often because of aggression or social awkwardness.

Popular children

• liked by many classmates, friendly, and cooperative.

• are good communicators and leaders who are kind and socially skilled.

Aggression

appears early in childhood — even toddlers can show it during play

Instrumental Aggression and Hostile Aggression 

Two main types of aggression:

Instrumental Aggression

used to achieve a goal (e.g., taking a toy).

Hostile Aggression 

meant to hurt another person physically or emotionally.

Aggression

can be physical (hitting, pushing) or relational (spreading rumors, excluding others).

Bullying

a common form of aggression, involving repeated harm, imbalance of power, and intent to hurt.

Passive victims and Aggressive victims

Two main types of victims:

Passive victims

quiet, withdrawn, and easy targets.

Aggressive victims

react angrily and provoke further bullying.

Electronic Media

plays a big role in children’s daily lives.

Computers

are transforming childhood, creating what some call a “digital generation.”

Video games

violent ones — can increase aggression and reduce school performance.

Television

greatly shapes how people think, feel, and act in society. It

Excessive viewing

particularly of non-educational content—has been associated with reduced attention span, lower academic performance, and decreased persistence in learning tasks.

Violence and negative behavior

• increased aggressive behavior, antisocial tendencies, and desensitization to violence. 

Stereotyping

it can reinforce gender, racial, or cultural biases.

Consumerism

advertisements encourage materialism and unrealistic desires

Reduced social interaction

excessive TV time can limit real-life communication and physical activity.

Undifferentiated, Social-Informational, Self-reflective, Mutual perspective-taking / Third-person and Societal

Selman’s 5 Stages of Perspective Thinking:

Undifferentiated

children know that self and others can have different thoughts and feelings but often confuse the two.

Social-Informational

children know that perspectives differ because people have access to different information.

Self-reflective

children can step into another’s shoes and view themselves as others do

Mutual perspective-taking / Third-person

children can step outside of the immediate situation to see how they and another person are viewed by a third person.

Societal

adolescents realized that a third-person perspective is influenced by broader personal, social, and cultural contexts.

Recursive Thinking

thinking about your own and other people’s thoughts.

Prejudice

an unreasonable, preconceived opinion or judgment—typically negative—about an individual or group of individuals that was formed without adequate information or firsthand experience.

Experiential

exposed to prejudices of those around them.

Identity

concerns adolescent’s identity; in the search for identity.