Exam 3

Forebrain

Front-most division of the vertebrate brain; in humans it is highly developed and handles language, reasoning, explicit memories, and working memory.

Midbrain

Central section of the brainstem that, together with the forebrain and hindbrain, forms the basic vertebrate brain framework.

Hindbrain

Posterior part of the brain—including medulla, pons, and cerebellum—responsible for vital life functions and motor coordination.

Vertebrates

Animals with backbones; all share the fundamental brain divisions of forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Higher-order processing

Complex cognitive activities such as conscious thought, language, and reasoning, largely carried out in the human forebrain.

Working memory

Short-term active storage and manipulation of information, primarily a forebrain (prefrontal cortex) function.

Modularity

Concept that certain mental functions are governed by specialized, dedicated brain areas.

Distributed processing

View that cognitive functions are spread across many brain regions rather than localized in single modules.

Localization of function

Principle that specific psychological processes reside in particular regions of the brain.

Fusiform Face Area (FFA)

Temporal-lobe region specialized for recognizing human faces.

Engram

Physical trace or location of a stored memory in the brain.

Procedural memory

Type of implicit memory for learned skills and routines, such as a rat’s route through a maze.

Implicit memory

Memory expressed without conscious awareness, influencing perceptions or behavior.

Lesion

Intentional or accidental damage to brain tissue used to study structure–function relationships.

Carl Lashley

Neuroscientist who searched for the engram by lesioning rat brains and concluded memory is widely distributed.

Rat maze experiment

Lashley’s study in which trained rats received brain lesions to test where their maze memory was stored.

Size-of-lesion effect

Lashley’s finding that memory loss depended on how much brain tissue was destroyed, not on the lesion’s location.

Research-focused university (R1)

Institution where grant-driven research is prioritized and faculty often buy out of teaching duties.

Teaching-focused university

Institution such as Fresno State where instruction and student engagement are the primary mission.

Teaching assistant (TA)

Graduate student who grades assignments and frequently conducts classes at large universities.

Dr. Nancy Kanwisher

Cognitive neuroscientist recognized for work on brain specialization and engaging public talks on the mind’s machinery.

Mind–Brain Principle

The concept that the mind is essentially the set of functions performed by the brain (“the mind is what the brain does”).

Brain Modification

Any intervention that alters brain structure or function, thereby changing mental processes (“changing the brain changes the mind”).

Neurosurgery

Surgical procedures performed on the nervous system, often used to treat disorders or injuries and a direct method of altering brain function.

Stroke

A disruption of blood flow to the brain that can damage neural tissue and alter cognitive or motor abilities.

Head Injury

Physical trauma to the skull or brain, potentially leading to cognitive, emotional, or behavioral changes.

Brain Damage

Any injury or disease process that impairs normal brain structure or function, which can subsequently affect the mind.

Neuron Density

The number of neurons relative to body size; humans have the highest neuron density of any animal, granting greater computational power.

Computational Power (Brain)

The brain’s capacity to perform complex processing, largely tied to the sheer number of neurons in humans.

Prospection

The uniquely human ability to mentally simulate future scenarios and learn from imagined outcomes.

Triune Brain (Outdated Model)

An older three-layer model of the brain—reptilian (instincts), limbic (emotions), and neocortex (rational thought); useful as a schematic but not anatomically precise.

Reptilian Brain / Brainstem

Deep, evolutionarily ancient brain region governing basic survival instincts and autonomic functions.

Limbic System

Mid-level brain structures (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus) involved in emotion, motivation, and memory; shared by all mammals.

Neocortex / Cerebral Cortex

The newest evolutionary layer of the primate brain responsible for higher cognition, language, and rational thought.

Forebrain

Largest brain division including the neocortex, limbic system, thalamus, and others; underlies higher-order processing.

Midbrain

Brain region atop the brainstem handling basic vision, hearing, sleep–wake cycles, arousal, and involuntary motor control.

Hindbrain

Lowest brain division (including cerebellum and medulla) managing vital life functions such as breathing, balance, and digestion.

Frontal Lobe

Front part of the cerebral cortex; critical for planning, decision-making, and simulation of future events.

Prefrontal Cortex

Anterior portion of the frontal lobe; supports rationality, impulse control, and advanced simulation abilities.

Broca’s Area

Region in the left frontal cortex controlling voluntary speech production and related motor movements.

Primary Motor Cortex

Strip of cortex that directs voluntary skeletal muscle movements, mapped contralaterally (left brain → right body).

Corpus Callosum

Thick bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain’s hemispheres, enabling inter-hemispheric communication.

Amygdala

Limbic structure involved in emotional processing, especially fear and threat detection.

Hippocampus

Limbic structure essential for forming and retrieving long-term declarative memories.

Cerebellum

Structure at the back of the brain coordinating balance, fine motor control, and some cognitive functions.

Gyri (Singular: Gyrus)

Raised ridges on the cerebral cortex that increase surface area for neuronal processing.

Sulci (Singular: Sulcus)

Grooves or fissures between gyri; together with gyri create the brain’s ‘wrinkled’ appearance.

Surface Area (Brain)

Total cortical sheet size; humans possess the greatest cortical surface area due to abundant gyri and sulci.

Connectome

The complete map of neural connections in a brain; “I am my connectome” highlights identity rooted in neural wiring.

Language (Human)

A unique human capacity combining grammar, syntax, and temporal reference, enabling idea transfer without direct action.

Simulation Learning

Acquiring knowledge by mentally rehearsing actions and consequences instead of performing them physically.

Brainstem

Structure connecting brain and spinal cord; houses midbrain, pons, and medulla, managing essential autonomic tasks.

Pons

Part of the brainstem regulating sleep, arousal, and some sensory functions.

Medulla

Lowest brainstem section controlling heart rate, breathing, and other vital autonomic functions.

Reflex Arc

Rapid, involuntary response path that travels only to the spinal cord, bypassing the brain for speed.

Locked-In Syndrome

Condition where forebrain consciousness may remain intact while voluntary motor pathways are disrupted, leaving only basic hindbrain functions.

Neuron vs. Body Energy Use

Humans devote ~25% of energy intake to brain activity—more than any other species—because of extensive neuron counts.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to reorganize and rewire itself throughout life in response to experience, learning, or injury.

Wiring by Firing

The principle that repeatedly activated neural pathways strengthen their synaptic connections, forming lasting brain circuits.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where electrical or chemical signals are transmitted.

Experience-Expectant Plasticity

Neural changes that rely on common, species-typical experiences (e.g., visual input) to develop normally.

Experience-Dependent Plasticity

Neural adaptations shaped by unique, individual experiences beyond typical developmental inputs.

Map Expansion

A form of experience-dependent plasticity where cortical representation of a body part enlarges after altered input (e.g., phantom limb sensations).

Phantom Limb

The vivid sensation that an amputated limb is still present, often including movement or pain.

Somatosensory Cortex

Parietal-lobe region that processes touch, temperature, and pain; organized as a body map (homunculus).

Homunculus

Distorted “map” of the body on the motor or somatosensory cortex, reflecting the amount of cortical area devoted to each part.

Mirror Region Takeover

Plastic process where remaining brain tissue on one hemisphere assumes functions of the damaged or removed opposite side.

Rasmussen’s Encephalitis

Rare childhood inflammatory brain disorder causing severe seizures, sometimes treated by hemispherectomy.

Hemispherectomy

Surgical removal or disconnection of one cerebral hemisphere, often performed in young children with intractable seizures.

Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities can be developed through effort and learning, fostering greater neuroplastic change.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Psychotherapy that targets maladaptive thought patterns to reshape neural circuits and behavior.

Perseveration

Repetitive, uncontrollable thought or behavior that reinforces rigid neural pathways (e.g., in depression or OCD).

Phantom Limb Pain

Chronic pain perceived in an amputated limb due to maladaptive cortical reorganization.

Redundancy (Neural)

Presence of duplicate neural systems that allows one area to compensate when another is damaged.

Age and Plasticity

Younger brains exhibit greater capacity for reorganization; plasticity generally declines with age but can be enhanced by lifestyle factors.

Neural Portrait of the Human Mind

A view, highlighted by Dr. Nancy Kanwisher, that specific mental functions can be mapped to distinct brain areas rather than being evenly distributed.

Carl Lashley (Distributed Network Theory)

Early neuroscientist who argued that cognition and memory are spread across the brain with no single localized centers.

Localization of Function

The principle that particular brain regions are dedicated to specific cognitive or behavioral tasks.

Imaging Research (Correlational Nature)

Brain-imaging methods show patterns of activity that correlate with tasks but do not by themselves prove causation.

Fusiform Face Area (FFA)

A region in the right fusiform gyrus specialized for face recognition; damage leads to face-processing deficits.

Prosopagnosia

The inability to recognize faces despite intact vision, typically caused by injury to the FFA.

Broca’s Area

Left-frontal lobe region crucial for speech production; lesions produce expressive aphasia.

Primary Motor Cortex

Frontal-lobe strip that initiates voluntary muscle movements.

Hippocampus

Medial-temporal brain structure essential for forming new long-term memories.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Technique that records electrical activity of the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Imaging method that measures glucose metabolism to infer neural activity.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Scanner that produces detailed anatomical images; detects tissue via magnetic fields and radio waves.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

MRI variant that tracks changes in blood flow (BOLD signal) to monitor moment-to-moment brain activity.

Subtraction Technique

fMRI analysis method that compares a task condition with a baseline to isolate task-specific brain activation.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s capacity to re-organize by forming new neural connections, e.g., recruiting the FFA for cow-face expertise.

Bottom-Up Processing

Information flow that starts with sensory input and builds upward to perception.

Top-Down Processing

Interpretive influence of knowledge, expectations, and experience on perception of sensory input.

Sensation Without Perception

Condition where sensory detection remains intact but conscious recognition fails, exemplified by prosopagnosia.

Neuron

Basic building block of the brain; a nerve cell that sends and receives information.

Synapse

Microscopic gap between neurons where chemical communication occurs.

Dendrite

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive incoming signals from other neurons.

Axon

Long fiber of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.

Action Potential

All-or-none electrical impulse that travels down an axon to trigger neurotransmitter release.

Electrochemical Process

Interaction of electrical signals and chemical neurotransmitters that underlies brain activity.

Excitatory Influence

Neurotransmitter effect that increases the likelihood a neuron will fire.