Motivation & Emotion

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned (e.g., imprinting in birds or the return of salmon to their birthplace to spawn). Reflexes in human infants are too simple to be considered instincts

Drive - Reduction Theory

The idea that a physiological NEED creates an aroused state of tension (DRIVE) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need

NEED (Food or Water) → DRIVE (Hunger or Thirst) → DRIVE-REDUCING BEHAVIORS (Eating or Drinking)

Based on the concept of Homeostasis: a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Arousal Theory

Rather that reducing a physiological need or tension state, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little as well as too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal

Incentive Theory

Theory that even if a need or drive is not originally present, positive or negative environmental stimuli may motivate behavior (e.g., after finishing a big meal, and feeling totally satisfied, we may become hungry again if we see or smell a delicious dessert)

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level needs become active

Optimal Arousal Theory

Claims the level of arousal for optimal performance varies with the task – some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal. Unlike drive-reduction theories which say that we do something to eliminate arousal, this theory claims we do things to increase arousal

Yerkes - Dodson Law

Usually perform most activities best when moderately aroused

We perform difficult or newly learned tasks better at lower levels of arousal and we tend to perform easy or well-learned tasks at a higher level of arousal

Emotion

Response that includes physiological arousal, expressive behavior and conscious thoughts

Theories of Emotion: James - Lange Theory

Stimulus → Snake

1. Physiological reaction occurs FIRST such as heart rate, pulse, or breathing increases

2. Emotion follows – fear

This claims that there is a unique set of physiological symptoms for each emotion. Physiological behavior CAUSES emotion. So, if we smile, we start to feel happy

Theories of Emotion: Cannon - Bard Theory

Stimulus → Snake

1. Thalamus sends message to the cortex and internal organs SIMULTANEOUSLY

2. Experience emotion (fear) and physiological behavior (heart pounding) at the same time

Doesn’t believe the body’s responses are distinct enough to differentiate between love and anger and fear. They all have similar physiology

Theories of Emotion: Cognition Theory (Schachter Two - Factor Theory)

Stimulus → Snake

1. Physiological response occurs – heart pounding

2. Mind interprets the experience – Look there is a snake! OMG!

3. Emotion is labeled – I must be feeling fear!

The same physical response (heart pounding) could happen later in the day. But, the mind might interpret that differently (Wow, a cute guy is looking at me). The emotion is then labeled (I’m in love!)

Criticism

Some physiological responses to a stimulus can trigger emotion before the brain has a chance to interpret them as simple emotions such as fear, dislike, disgust

Robert Zajonc

We have an emotional reaction BEFORE we interpret a situation. Some (fear) responses happen without conscious appraisal

Richard Lazarus

Our brain processes vast amounts of information without our awareness and SOME emotional responses do not require conscious thinking. (Similar to Zajonc)

HOWEVER…there is still cognitive appraisal happening, we just might not be aware of it. This still makes it a cognitive process (Similar to the Two-Factor theory)

Lie Detection

Polygraph is the machine used to detect lies by measuring several physiological responses (perspiration, heart rate, breathing) Assumes that these responses will RISE when the person lies due to emotion. NOT VERY ACCURATE

Facial Expressions - Ekman

1. Women are better than men at reading emotion in body language

2. Six emotions are expressed the same way in ALL cultures

   1. Happy, Sad, Surprise, Anger, Disgust, Fear

   2. It is believed this is the result of evolution/not learning. The facial muscles serve an important purpose. (brows drop when angry to protect eyes from a punch)

Display Rules

Socially learned norms within a culture that dictate how emotions should be expressed

Facial Feedback Effect

Smiling makes you feel happy!

When people smile, the facial muscles regulate the flow of air and temperature that can create a good feeling. When we imitate others’ facial expressions we also feel the way they feel.

Experiencing Emotion: Fear

1. Adaptive response preparing our bodies to flee danger

2. Acquired through classical conditioning or observational learning

3. May have a biological predisposition in how the amygdala responds

Experiencing Emotion: Anger

1. Caused by annoyances, odors, temperatures, aches and pains

2. How to channel anger appropriately? Exercise, play music, talking

3. Expressing anger usually leads to more anger – non cathartic

Experiencing Emotion: Happiness

1. Adaptation-Level Principle – we adapt to levels of a stimulus and need something even better to make us happy

2. Relative-Deprivation Principle – sense that we are worse off than others with whom we compare ourselves. We look to those who are more successful/happy/wealthy than ourselves and feel envy rather than compare ourselves to those worse off and feel happy

3. Predictors of Happiness - High self-esteem, outgoing, friends, work, faith, sleep, exercise