Chapter 1 Griggs

Psychology

Is the science of behavior and mental processes. Our observable behavior, such as speech and physical movement, and our internal mental processes, such as remembering and thinking.

The four major research perspectives

biological, cognitive, behavioral, and sociocultural

Internal Factors

The biological perspective and the cognitive perspective focus on causes that stem from within us.

External Factors

The behavioral perspective and the sociocultural perspective focus on causes that stem from outside us.

Biological Perspective

Our physical hardware (mainly brain and nervous system) is viewed as the major determiner of behavior and mental processing.
-causes within our physiology, genetics, and human evolution

Cognitive Perspective

The major explanatory focus is on how our mental processes, such as perception, memory, and problem solving, work and impact our behavior.
-organizing categorical information around what we consider the most typical or representative examples (prototypes) of a category

Behavioral Perspective

A research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how external environmental events condition observable behavior.
-two major types of conditioning; classical and operant
-classical conditioning is important in determining our behavior
-operant conditioning involves the relationship between our behavior and its environmental consequences (considered to be more important than classical)
-environmental events condition our behavior and are the causes of it

Sociocultural Perspective

Specifically focuses on the impact of other people and our cultures as the major determines of our behavior and mental processing. The sociocultural perspective equally stresses cognitive types of learning just as much as on mental processing as observable behavior.
-individuals and groups mainly

Hindsight Bias

(I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
After learning about an outcome, to be overconfident in one's ability to have predicted it.

The Three Methods Used by Psychologists

Descriptive, correlational, and experimental

Experimental Method/Research

-used most often because it allows the researcher to explore cause-effect relationships (the main goal of psychology is to explain, through cause-effect relationships, human behavior and mental processes)

Descriptive Methods

Observational techniques, case studies, and survey research.
-descriptive data only allow the researcher to speculate about cause-effect relationships - to develop hypotheses about casual relationships
-such hypotheses must then be tested in experiments

Naturalistic Observation

-naturalistic observation; where behavior is observed in its natural setting, without the researcher intervening in the behavior being observed
-observational techniques to have a major potential problem, the observer may influence or change the behavior of those being observed

Participant Observation

-the observer becomes part of the group being observed
-comparable to doing undercover work

Case Study

-the researcher studies an individual in depth over an extended period of time
-the researcher attempts to learn as much as possible about the individual being studied
-the most common use of case studies are in clinical settings
-famous example; Henry Molaison, a person with amnesia

Survey Research

-using questionnaires and interviews to collect information about the behavior, beliefs, and attitudes of particular groups of people
-the wording, order, and structure of the survey questions may lead the participants to give biased answers
-beware of the social desirability bias; our tendency to respond in socially approved ways that may not reflect what we actually think or do

Population

The entire group of people that a researcher is studying.

Sample

The subset of a population that actually participates in a research study.

Random Sampling

A sampling technique that obtains a representative sample of a population by ensuring that each individual in a population has an equal opportunity to be in the sample.

Correlation Study

A research study in which two variables are measured to determine if they are related (how well either one predicts the other).
-correlational data do not allow us to conclude anything about cause-effect relationships

Variable

Any factor that can take on more than one value.
example: age, height, grade point average, and intelligence test scores are all variables
-take the two measurements on the sample

Correlation Coefficient

A statistic that tells us the type and the strength of the relationship between two variables. The sign of the coefficient (+ or -) indicates the type of correlation, positive or negative. The absolute value of the coefficient (0.0 to 1.0) represents the strength of the correlation, with 1.0 being the maximum strength.

Positive Correlation

A direct relationship between two variables.

Negative Correlation

An inverse relationship between two variables.

Scatterplots

Visual depictions of correlational data in which each data point represents the scores on the two variables for each participant.

Third-Variable Problem

An explanation of a correlation between two variables in terms of another (third) variable that could possibly be responsible for the observed relationship between the two variables.

Random Assignment

A control measure in which participants are randomly assigned to groups in order to equalize participant characteristics across the various groups in an experiment.

Random Sampling vs. Random Assignment

Random Sampling:
-a sample technique
-used in experiments and other research methods
-allows researcher to generalize the findings to the relevant populations

Random Assignment:
-a control measure
-used only in experiments
-allows researcher to control for possible influences of individual characteristics of the participants on the behavior(s) of interest

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the variable that is a hypothesized cause and thus is manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the variable that is hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable and thus is measured by the experimenter.

Experiment

A research method in which the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables and measures their effect on one or more depending variables while controlling other potentially relevant variables.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the independent variable.

Operational Definition

A description of the operations or procedures that a researcher uses to manipulate or measure a variable.

Nocebo Effect

A negative placebo effect due to the expectation of adverse consequences from receiving treatment.

Inferential Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses that allow researchers to draw conclusions about the results of a study by determining the probability that the results are due to random variation (chance). The results are statistically significant if this probability is .05 or less.

Double-Blind Procedure

A control measure in an experiment in which neither the experimenters nor the participants know which participants are in the experimental and the control groups.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of a large number of studies on one experimental question into one analysis to arrive at an overall conclusion.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that describe the results of a research study in a concise fashion.

Frequency Distribution

A depiction, in a table or figure, of the number of participants (frequency) receiving each score for a variable.

Mean

Average of all numbers

Median

Middle number

Mode

Most frequent occurring number

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution of scores.

Standard Deviation

The average extent that the scores vary from the mean for a distribution of scores.

Normal Distribution

A frequency distribution that is shaped like a bell. About 68 percent of the scores fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean, about 95 percent fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean, and over 99 percent fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores.

Right-Skewed Distribution

An asymmetric frequency distribution in which there are some unusually high scores that distort the mean to be greater than the median.

Left-Skewed Distribution

An asymmetric frequency distribution in which there are some unusually low scores that distort the mean to be less than the median.