Studied by 8 peopleNatural Selection
a fundamental mechanism of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin. It describes the process through which organisms that are better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Nuture
refers to how their environment (including relationships and experiences) impacts their development.
Nature
how genetics influence an individual's personality
Twin Studies
Are research designs used in psychology and behavioral genetics to determine the relative influence of genetics and environment on individual traits and behaviors. These studies help in understanding the genetic and environmental contributions to physical and psychological characteristics, including intelligence, personality, and susceptibility to mental health disorders.
Family Studies
examine the influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of traits and behaviors by analyzing patterns within families. Family studies are valuable in understanding the hereditary nature of mental health conditions and other psychological traits.
Adoption Studies
a type of research used to separate the effects of genetics and environment on human development by studying individuals who have been adopted. Adoption studies provide critical insights into the nature vs. nurture debate and help in understanding the genetic basis of psychological traits and disorders.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord
Pherial Nervous System (PNS)
Sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
Autonomic nervous system
– The part of the PNS that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs, like the heart
Somatic nervous system
The division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
Sympathetic Nervous System
arouses the body.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
calms the body.
Neurons
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Axon
wire-like structure ending in the terminal that extends from the cell body.
Myelin Sheath
a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds the neural impulse.
Sensory Neurons (afferent)
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors (nose, ears, hands) to the central nervous system.
Interneuron
Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs.
Motor Neurons (efferent)
Neurons that carry incoming information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate; they fit into the receptor site of neurons like a key fits into a lock.
Agonist
Excite by causing neurotransmitters to hit the site multiple times.
Antagonists
Inhibits by blocking neurotransmitters
Pituitary gland
The endocrine system’s most influential gland, under the influence of the hypothalamus, this regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
EEG
An amplified recording of waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface, these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the skull.
PET
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a certain task.
MRI
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce a computer generated image that distinguishes between the types of soft tissue in the brain.
Medulla
Connected to the base of the brain stem, it controls our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing.
Reticular Formation
Screens incoming info, and filters out irrelevant info, controls arousal and attention.
Thalamus
The brain's sensory switchboard
Pons
Above the medulla, makes chemicals involved w/ sleep & facial expressions
Cerebellum
The little brain attached to the rear of the brain stem controls coordination, fire muscles movements and balance
Limbic System
Associated with emotions like aggression and fear and drives such as hunger, thirst, and sex (Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, and Amygdala).
Amygdala
Part of the limbic system that is involved in emotions, aggression, and fear
Hypothalamus
Controls the metabolic functions of body temp, sex arousal, hunger, thirst, motivation/emotions, and the endocrine system the 4 f’s
Hippocampus
Part of the limbic system involved in learning and memory
Temporal Lobe
At the side of the brain above the ears involved in memory, perception, hearing
Occipital Lobe
Lower back part of the brain involved with processing visual infovision
Peripheral Lobe
Top of brain, discriminates between textures and shapes.
Frontal Lobe
Located under the forehead, involved with complex cognitive functions.
Glial Cells
a type of cell that provides physical and chemical support to neurons and maintains their environment.
Spinal Cord
a long, tube-like band of tissue. It connects your brain to your lower back. Your spinal cord carries nerve signals from your brain to your body and vice versa.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
a long-lasting (chronic) disease of the central nervous system.
Reflex Arc
is a neural pathway that controls a reflex. In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows for faster reflex actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons without the delay of routing signals through the brain.
All-or-nothing principle
signal transmission between neurons is not dependent on the strength of the stimuli but, rather, only that the initial threshold is met. ➡️
Myasthenia Gravis
a chronic autoimmune disorder in which antibodies destroy the communication between nerves and muscle, resulting in weakness of the skeletal muscles.
Depolarization
this occurs when positive ions enter the neuron, making it susceptible to fire an action potential
Refractory Period
after a neuron has fired an action potential, it pauses for a short period to recharge, until it will fire again
Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Reuptake
neurotransmitters that can’t find an area across the synapse to attach will be reabsorbed by the sending neuron
Neural Firing
A communication between neurons through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters.
Acetylcholine
activates motor neurons and skeletal muscles, too little = Alzheimer’s
Dopamine
contributes to voluntary movements and pleasurable emotions, lack of it causes Parkinson’s as too much causes schizophrenia
Endorphins
natural pain killers created by brain, promotes pain relief, like morphine
Serotonin
involved in mood, regulation of sleep, appetite, and body temperature, to little leads to depression as too much contributes to OCD and mania
Norepinephrine
affects memory, learning, and contributes to changes in mood, undersupply leads to depression
Glutamate
an excitatory neurotransmitter with several types of receptors found throughout the central nervous system. It is important to memory, cognition, and mood regulation.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger in your brain. Known for producing a calming effect.
Substance P (SP)
an 11-amino acid-long neuropeptide expressed by the central nervous system (CNS), the peripheral nervous system, and immune cells.
Acetylcholine
a neurotransmitter that plays a role in memory, learning, attention, arousal and involuntary muscle movement.
Adrenaline
a hormone that your body naturally releases from your adrenal gland. Adrenaline causes changes in your body that help you to act in a sudden stressful situation — also known as a 'fight or flight response'.
Leptin
a hormone your body releases that helps it maintain your normal weight on a long-term basis. The level of leptin in your blood is directly related to how much body fat you have.
Ghrelin
a hormone produced by your stomach. “Hunger hormone” - Ghrelin Gremlin
Melatonin
a hormone in your body that plays a role in sleep. The production and release of melatonin in the brain is connected to time of day, increasing when it's dark and decreasing when it's light.
Oxytocin
a natural hormone that manages key aspects of the female and male reproductive systems.
Stimulants
such as caffeine and cocaine, typically cause increased neural activity.
Depressants
such as alcohol, typically cause decreased neural activity.
Hallucinogens
such as marijuana, typically cause distortions in perception and/or cognition.
Opioids
such as heroin, typically act as pain relievers.
William Penfield
studied the effects of stimulation on the motor cortex
Phineas Gage
first lobotomy after a rod goes through his head; gives psych info on part of brain involved w/ emotions and reasoning
Broca’s Area
directs muscle movements involved with speech
Wernicke’s Area
involved in language comprehension
Plasticity
brain’s ability to modify itself after some kind of injury/illness
Split Brain
corpus callosum cut, not allowing info to travel to other side of brain
Corpus Callosum
responsible for higher thinking function, connects two sides of brain
Left Hemishpere
logical, sequential tasks, solving math problems, verbal/logical
Right Hemishere
facial recognition, puzzle solver, emotional, artistic/creative
Sensory Cortex
receives info from skin surface and sense organs
Motor Cortex
controls voluntary movements, on opposite side of body
Hindbrain
lower brain, located at rear base of skull, responsible for reflexive or automatic behaviors
Forebrain
the largest part of brain that controls what we think of as thoughts and reasons
Midbrain
located above Pons, integrates and relay sensory info to main part of brain
Circadian rhythm
a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. It is driven by an internal "biological clock" located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
a test that detects electrical activity in the brain using small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to the scalp. The brain's electrical activity is displayed as wavy lines on a recording, which helps diagnose conditions such as epilepsy and other brain disorders.
NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep
one of the two main types of sleep, divided into three stages (N1, N2, and N3), each progressively deeper.
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep
is the sleep stage characterized by rapid movements of the eyes, more vivid dreams, and increased brain activity.
Activation-synthesis
is a neurobiological explanation for dreaming proposed by J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley. According to this theory, dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity (activation) during REM sleep
Consolidation Theory
that sleep, particularly REM sleep, plays a crucial role in the process of consolidating memories. This theory suggests that during sleep, the brain processes and strengthens new information and skills learned during the day, making them more stable and integrated into long-term memory.
Insomnia
a common sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early and being unable to return to sleep. It can lead to daytime fatigue, mood disturbances, and impaired functioning. Causes of insomnia can include stress, anxiety, medications, or underlying health conditions.
Narcolepsy
a chronic sleep disorder marked by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden episodes of sleep attacks. People with narcolepsy often find it difficult to stay awake for long periods, regardless of the circumstances.
REM sleep behavior disorder
a condition in which individuals physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep. This disorder can result in injury to the individual or their bed partner.
Sleep Apnea
a serious sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts. The most common type is obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), which occurs when the throat muscles intermittently relax and block the airway during sleep. Symptoms include loud snoring, choking or gasping during sleep, and excessive daytime sleepiness
Somnambulism or sleepwalking
is a behavior disorder that originates during deep sleep (NREM sleep) and results in walking or performing other complex behaviors while asleep. It is more common in children and can include a range of activities from simple sitting up in bed to walking around the house.
Sensation
the process of detecting information from the environment that meets a certain threshold and transducing stimuli into neurochemical messages for processing (perception) in the brain.
Weber’s law
a principle in psychology that quantifies the perception of change in a given stimulus. It states that the smallest detectable difference in stimulus intensity (the just noticeable difference or JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity.
Synesthesia
an experience of sensation in which one system of sensation is experienced through another.
Retina
is the photosensitive surface at the back of the eye.
Lens
a transparent, biconvex structure in the anterior portion of the eyeball (just behind the iris) that provides the fine, adjustable focus of the optical system.
Cornea
the transparent part of the outer covering of the eye, through which light first passes.
Iris
a muscular disk that surrounds the pupil of the eye and controls the amount of light entering the eye by contraction or relaxation.
Cones
specialized types of photoreceptors that work best in bright light conditions. Cones are very sensitive to acute detail and provide tremendous spatial resolution.
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