What are organisms that cause damage, or possibly death, to the host organism that they invade?
infectious agents
What are infectious agents that cause harm to the host?
pathogenic
What are the five infectious agents?
Hint:
B
V
F
Pr
Pa
bacteria
viruses
fungi
protozoans
parasites
Prokaryotic
Size: 1-2 micrometers
Features: intracellular and extracellular microbes; some have a sticky polysaccharide capsule and/or hairlike pili
Diseases: strep, staph, tb, syphilis, diphtheria, tetanus, Lyme disease salmonella, anthrax
bacteria
Not prokaryotic or eukaryotic, but rather DNA or RNA housed in a capsid protein
1/100 of a micrometer
Features: obligate intracellular parasites; most enter a cell to replicate
Diseases: common cold, influenza, polio, mumps, measles, hepatitis, rubella, chicken pox, ebola, herpes, and HIV (which leads to AIDS)
virus
Eukaryotic
4-100 micrometers
Features: produce spores; release proteolytic enzymes
Diseases: ringworm, diaper rash, jock itch, athleteâs foot, yeast infection, histoplasmosis
fungi
Eukaryotic
1-50 micrometers
Features: intracellular and extracellular parasites that interfere with normal cellular functions
Diseases: malaria, toxoplasmosis, giardiasis, amoebiasis, leishmaniasis, trichomonaisis, and African sleeping sickness
protozoan
Eukaryotic
Larger than a cm (not microscopic)
Features: live within a host; grow in size with nutrients provided by the host
Diseases: parasitic infection from tapeworms, lung, liver, and blood flukes, hookworms, Trichinella, Ascaris, whipworms, and pinworms
parasites
What are small fragments of infectious proteins that cause disease in nervous tissue?
prions
How do prions cause disease?
unknown
How are prions spread?
consumption of infected nervous tissue
Where are leukocytes made?
red bone marrow
What are the three types of granulocytes?
basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils
Basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils are all types of what? :)
granulocytes
What do monocytes become?
macrophages or dendritic cells
What are the three types of lymphocytes?
T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, and NK (natural killer) cells
Most leukocytes are found in ______rather than in the ________________.
body tissues; blood stream
What are the lymphatic tissues?
lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, lymphatic nodules, and MALT
Macrophages are also found where?
select organs
What kinds of cells are being described?
Cells that engulf pathogens in the skin and mucosal membranes then migrate to a lymph node through lymph vessels that drain the tissue
dendritic cells
Where are dendritic cells found?
skin and mucosal membranes
What relationship exists between CT and mast cells?
Mast cells are located within the CT throughout the body, primarily in close proximity to small blood vessels.
Small, soluble proteins produced by cells of both the innate and adaptive immune system to regulate and facilitate immune system activity
Serve as a means of communication between the cells, control the development and behavior of effector cells of immunity, regulate the inflammatory response of innate immunity, and can serve as weapons to destroy cells in some cases
Can influence other non-immune cells like cells of the nervous system
cytokines
What are the four major classes of cytokines?
Interleukin (IL)
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
Colony-stimulating factor (CSF)
Interferon (IFN)
Non-specific
Weâre born with it
Includes the barriers of the skin and mucosal membranes that prevent entry, as well as non-specific cellular and molecular internal defenses
Provides an immediate response to many substances
innate immunity
Acquired immunity
Produces a delayed response to specific antigens
Gained through exposure to a foreign substance
Involves specific T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes, which respond to different antigens
Takes several days to be effective
adaptive immunity
Innate immunity includes all body processes that do one of two things. What are they?
Prevent entry of potentially harmful substances
Respond non-specifically to a wide range of potentially harmful substances following their entry into the body - that is, non-specific internal defenses
Internal innate defenses include what three things?
Activities of various types of cells including neutrophils, macrophages, and NK cells
Chemicals such as interferon and complement
Physiological processes that include inflammation and fever
What cells are involved in innate immunity?
granulocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils), mast cells, NK cells, and macrophages
What cells are involved in adaptive immunity?
T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, and plasma cells
How does the skin present a physical barrier?
If itâs in tact, the epithelial tissues of the epidermis and the CT of the dermis make a physical barrier that very few microbes can penetrate.
How does the skin present a chemical barrier?
Its cells release antimicrobial substances like IGA, lysozyme, sebum, and defensins. The skin also has normal flora living on it.
What is the ânormal floraâ? What is itâs purpose?
They are non-pathogenic microorganisms that live on the skin and help prevent the growth of pathogenic microorganisms.
List the structures in the body that use the process of âwashing away microbesâ to prevent infection.
Sweat glands
Salivary glands
Lacrimal glands
What structures use a low pH to prevent infection?
Sebaceous (oil) glands
Stomach (hydrochloric acid
Vagina (lactic acid of urogenital tract)
What distinguishes neutrophils from macrophages?
Neutrophils
most prevalent leukocyte in the blood
first to arrive during inflammatory response
âfoot soldiersâ
Macrophages
less abundant
arrive later after the inflammatory response begins
stay longer than neutrophils
âcleanup crewâ
How do basophils differ from mast cells?
circulate in blood while mast cells reside in skinâs CT, mucosal linings, and various internal organs
How do NK cells accomplish the task of eliminating unwanted cells?
Patrol body for unhealthy cells (immune surveillance)
When they find unhealthy cells, they make physical contact with them and destroy them by releasing cytotoxic chemicals. Perforin, one of these chemicals, forms a transmembrane pore in the unwanted cells while granzymes enter the cell through this hole, which initiates apoptosis. The cell shrivels up and dies as a result.
They are a class of cytokines released from a variety of cells, including leukocytes and fibroblasts.
Serve as a non-specific defense mechanism against the spread of any viral infection
When released, they bind to the receptors of neighboring cells to prevent them from becoming infected and trigger synthesis of enzymes that destroy viral RNA or DNA and inhibit synthesis of viral proteins
Additionally stimulates macrophages and NK cells to destroy virus-infected cells when relased
interferon
One of the most important antimicrobial groups of substances of innate immunity
Made of at least 30 plasma proteins that make up approximately 10% of the serum proteins in the blood (collectively, these proteins are referred to as complement)
complement system
The binding of a protein to a portion of bacteria or other cell type that enhances phagocytosis
Binding of complement makes it more likely that a substance is identified and engulfed by phagocytic cells
osonization
By activating basophils and mast cells, as well as attracting neutrophils and macrophages, the complement increases the inflammatory response
inflammation
Various complement components trigger the direct killing of a target through the formation of a protein channel in the target cellâs plasma membrane.
The membrane attack complex (channel) allows for fluid to rush into the cell and cause lysis of the cell
cytolysis
The complement links immune (antigen-antibody) complexes to erythrocytes so that they can be taken to the liver and spleen. The red blood cells have these complexes taken off by macrophages in these organs then continue to circulate in the blood.
elimination of immune complexes
Of what benefit is the inflammatory response?
It acts immediately and locally and is the major effector response of innate immunity. Itâs successful in helping to get rid of most infectious agents and other unwanted substances from the body.
Summarize the four steps of the inflammatory response.
Damaged cells of injured tissues, basophils and mast cells, and infectious organisms release chemicals like histamine, leukotrienes, prostoglandins, and chemotactic factors.
Chemicals that were released cause vascular changes such as vasodilation, an increase in capillary permeability, and a display of CAMs (molecules for leukocyte adhesion).
Leukocytes go from the blood to the infected tissue through the process of margination, diapedesis, and chemotaxis.
Plasma proteins delivered to inflammation site
What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?
Redness
Heat
Swelling
Pain
Loss of function
In what ways does exudate assist in the bodyâs defense?
delivers cells and substances needed to eliminate the injurious agent and promotes healing
What is a fever?
abnormal elevation of body temp. (pyrexia) of at least 1.8 degrees F from the typically accepted body temp.
What does fever result from?
the pyrogens, toxins produced by infectious agents, or in response to trauma, drug reactions, and brain tumors
What are the stages of a fever?
Onset
Stadium
Defervescence
What are the benefits of a fever?
Inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses
Promotes interferon activity
Increases activity of adaptive immunity
Accelerates tissue repair
Can increase CAMs
Increase WBC activity
What are the risks of a fever?
Seizures
Irreversible brain damage
Death