North American Indian History Midterm

What is the Bering Strait Theory? (CHAP 1)

Anti-aboriginal theory that proposes lower sea levels created a land bridge between Asia and America, leading to Native’s crossing and existing in the “New World.” Attempts to use DNA evidence linked with Asian populations. Largely disclaimed by its practicality through discovery of developed indigenous societies.

Who is the Kennewick Man? (CHAP 1)

Remains of a man found in Columbia research. Debate of Native Ancestral Claims and US Science Research over ethnic origins of man. Was returned to tribes in 2017 after a lengthy back-and-forth Congressional process.

Who were the Chumash? (CHAP 1)

Santa Barbara tribes who flourished on ocean/land resources, patterned seasonally. Showcase rich early native civilizations and the trade networks connecting such.

What is the Dalles? (CHAP 1)

Site on the Columbia river of salmon consolidation. Showcases the importance of land, and crucial land locations, in constructing sacred/traditional areas, trade networks…

What is the Great Basin? (CHAP 1)

Location in Nevada showcasing a rich landscape with markings of ancient Native use (art!).

What are Paleo-Indians? (CHAP 1)

ancient indians!

What was corn’s significance? (CHAP 1)

Traditional food for Native lifestyle, three sisters. Traded and exposed to settlers. Agricultural settlements adopted new Native lifestyles, changing cultures, relationships with land… “life giving”

Who were the Hohokam? (CHAP 1)

Early indigenous tribe in the Sonora Desert of South Arizona. Showcases the ability of tribes to work with their land, crafting infrastructure and society in a way that is rooted and best benefitting from their environment.

Who were the Ancestral Pueblo? What’s the significance of Chaco Canyon? (CHAP 1)

Native culture emering around 900. Rich, intellectual culture settled in San Juan River’s Basin (Chaco Canyon). Showcase another rich, trading, settled community

What was the Great Migration? (CHAP 1)

Period in Central Middle Ages after natural disasters and environmental failures which scattered Ancestral Pueblos. Produced many diverse cultures and societies in southwest. Textbook poses this as one of the reasons Europeans percieved Natives as weak - of course they would be weakened by something so monumental and fragmenting.

What was Hopewellian culture? (CHAP 1)

Society living in Ohio valley, rich culture built on traditions, ceremonies, fueled by distant trade networks. Large point of culture being their burial mounds.

What was Cahokia? (CHAP 1)

Another showcasing of Ancient Indigenous power -- founded around 700, at meetings of Missouri/Mississippi/Illinios rivers, huge culture site, huge trade site.

Great League of Peace (CHAP 1)

League of Five Nations (really 6). Reformation of Indian culture and lifestyles, re-evaluating life values against war and blood. Hiawatha meets with spirit woman, then changes the evil warlord.

Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas, Tuscaroras.

What was the Navajo creation story? (CHAP 1)

Told a tale of different worldly levels, each with more refined details, invoking themes of animalism, colors, spirituality, nature, light/dark…

What was the Iroquois creation story? (CHAP 1)

Earth created on the back of a turtle, with the falling woman shaping the earth and humans. Her sons, themes of peace/chaos fight, leaving the good brother victorious.

What was the idea of “noble savages?” (CHAP 2)

The European intersection of religion and racism - the view that the New World was a Christian-God-Given right, thus labeled all Natives as these people capable of conversion.

What were the Columbian Exchanges? (CHAP 2)

It was the vast biologically-founded exchanges which occurred between early European encounters with indigenous peoples. Whether it be agriculture, livestock, disease, humans (trade, culture…) - these exchanges had profound effects in utterly changing environments and societies in the New World.

What was the Requerimiento? (CHAP 2)

published by King of Spain, 1513, requiring all Natives to subordinate and recognize power of the throne, otherwise violence and conquest will proceed.

What was the Encomienda System? (CHAP 2)

Indian workers in Spanish colonies would be directly assigned to mines and plantation owners, who would give them protection and Christian education.

What was the Repartimiento system? (CHAP 2)

Replaced encomienda by forcing Indian towns to supply labor. Lots of resistance and Christian conversion.

What were the Beaver Wars of the 17th C? (CHAP 2)

Prompted through French settlement and beaver hunting in NorthEast. Changes to beaver migration, habitats, and availability brought tension between tribes, and conflict broke out between Iroquois and Hurons.

Who was Powhatan? (CHAP 2)

Chief of the Powhatan Virginian people - Wahunsunacawh, father of Pocahontas. Interactions with John Smith and Jamestown.

What was the Pequot War of 1637? (CHAP 2)

English/Native conflict. English Cape settlers wanting to extend to Conneticut river, but Pequot tribe was in such territory. Massive loss of Pequots, destruction of life, village, culture.

Who was Jean de Brebeuf? (CHAP 2)

Jesuit missionary for native populations. Showcased accommodation policies - presenting Christianity in a way translateable to Native interests… important to remember that most conversion work was not at all civilized.

what is the idea of “metis” or “metissage” (CHAP 2)

French terms for mixing, specifically of races. Showcases one of the dominant features of French motivation, was truly to build relationships - interracial marriage, trade networks, diplomacy… both French reliance on Native culture for sustenance and survival + Native reliance on European trade.

Who was De Soto? (Chap 2)

Conquistador, “discovers” mississippi, Arkansas expeditions, Southeastern US invasions.

Who was Cortes? (CHAP 2)

First ruler of New Spain after conquesting South America, like the Aztecs.

What was the Pueblo Revolt?

Late 17th Century, led by medicine man Pope, organized and structured super strictly and secretly… Pueblos find some success in dampening Spaniard power and strengthening their own, but it does not last. Definitely has its long term implications though on Southwestern indigenous resilience and strength.

What is the significance of the Battle of Champlain? (CHAP 2)

Samuel de Champlain joined parties of Algoniquns / Hurons, using French technology and soldiers to help fight against Iroquois, stirring the pot of native affairs.

What was Bacon’s Rebellion? (CHAP 2)

Nathaniel Bacon wanted to fight against the Powhatan confedaracy, but government of Jamestown rejected such. He decides to go against their word, and fights them with his own militia, winning - establishing first reservation structures, and forcing Powhatan resource payment to English.

Who was William Bradford? (CHAP 2)

Governed early English colonies in Mass, writes a lot on history and affairs.

1620 —> Discusses positive relations and alliance with nearby natives (Samoset and Squanto!)

1634 —> Seeks Conneticut river expansion. Tragedy of disease on Natives, but sees it as a divine punishment for Native lifestyle, while English are immune.

What was King Philip’s War? (1675-1676) (Chap 3)

bloodiest per capita war in American History. Erased generations of native/settler coexistence.

Metacom / Philip, son of Massasoit leads the war after cascading laws and frameworks of English Anti-Nativism. Forced surrender of Wampanoag guns/weapons… first english execution of Native peoples.

Splits Native relations, english relations, N/E relations… ends with English power and permanence being recognized.

What was the Covenant Chain? (CHAP 3)

Alliances between Iroquois Confederacy and British forces during F/I war… based on wampum belt… kept settlers/native culturally seperated… alliances of neutrality!

What does Henry Stuart’s report show?

showcases the still ongoing diplomacy between Iroquois confederacy and English settlers - Native ideals seek peace and friendship amongst eachother, trying to spread word of fighting common English enemy, gather as many tribes as possible.

What was the Treaty of Paris 1763? (CHAP 3)

End of the French and Indian War. Native populations were not given a spot on the treaty, had no involvement. France loses all land east of the mississippi to US claims.

What was the significance of St. Joseph’s Fort? (CHAP 3)

Fur trade post at south Lake Michigan. Functioned as a garrison and Catholic mission. Showed aspects of metissage with neighboring Pottawattame, but also just the weakness of European settlement —> low population forts and settlements solely protected by promise of war, they themselves held little power.

What was the Hudson Bay Company? (CHAP 3)

English trade company by royal charter which gave access to fort building, settlement building, waging native war, fur trade… emphasize importance of water, for trade access, intercepting Native goods before they reach French companies…

What was the Cherokee War of Independence? (1760-1761) (CHAP 4)

Self-explanatory, leads to loss and massive cession of land to US.

What was Pontiac’s Rebellion? (CHAP 4)

Stems from Delaware Prophit Ni’olin, who, after the Cherokee War, speaks to reject EURO ways and create a multi-tribal alliance.

Rebellion shows success, raid British forts, lots of blood.

What was the Proclamation of 1763? (CHAP 4)

Reserves lands west of Appalachia to Natives, while east belongs to English settlers. Rules about violence on either territory, prevent English settlement on Native land, land can be bought through government or through treaty. Lots of these rules are STUPIDLY loose and not enforced.

What was the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768)? (CHAP 4)

Cedes lands in Kentucky to US Settlement, leading to a huge wave of settlers presence. Daniel Boone!

What was Dunmore’s War? (1774) (CHAP 4)

Settler encroachment on Shawnees, leading to Shawnee defeat and making of peace —> ohio river is boundary of their territory.

What was the 2nd Cherokee War? (1777) (CHAP 4)

Also known as Dragging Canoe’s war. Settler encroachment forces Cherokees to defend their soveriegnty and land, facing massive defeats and losses of land. Their determination stood strong.

What can be said of Native independence during Revolutionary War? (CHAP 4)

Natives were fighting for themselves! Whether based on past/present/future reasons, alliances and confederations existed, but largely people were fighting for their own individual reasons. Iroquois confederation was divided by conflicting interests from Proc. of 1763.

What was the Sullivan Campaign? (CHAP 4)

John Sullivan was sent by GW to use total violence and destruction against hostile people from 6 nations.

What was the Treaty of Paris (1783)? (CHAP 4)

Ended the revolutionary war, signaling America’s independence —> no natives invited, huge betrayal, US land authority pushed to Mississippi River.

Who was Joseph Brant? (CHAP 4)

Mohawk Chief, allied with British during Revolution.

What was the Northwest Ordinance act of 1787? (CHAP 4 + 5)

US gov claims to protect Native land with best interest, not laying claim to such unless through justified war… used to justify any native resistance as war, thus claiming their land!

What was the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1790? (CHAP 4)

regulates land trade, can only be done congressionally. Rules were never really enforced.

What was the Battle of Fallen Timbers and the Treaty of Greenville? (1794-1795) (CHAP 4)

Northwest native resistence to Ordinance act, Trade/Intercourse act… betrayed by British allies while fighting American forces, leading to the cession of 2/3 Ohio, Indiana… ENDS THE NORTHWEST INDIAN WAR.

What does Mary Jemison’s Account Show? (CHAP 4)

Difficulties of remaining peaceful and neutral in Native populations. Promises of neutrality to Americans, British pressure natives to fight alongside them (promise security), British later betray their trust.

Also details the destruction and fear of Sullivan’s Campaign.

What does Saukamappee’s account show? (CHAP 4)

Cree man adopted by Blackfoot.

Guns/Horses, smallpox epidemic ~1781.

What was the structure for Indian affairs in the US Government? (CHAP 5)

Bureaucracy of Indian Affairs was established 1829 under Offices of War dept… in mid 19th C it was moved to dept. of Interior…

What were the policies during the Jeffersonian Era (early 19th C)? (CHAP 5)

CIVILIZATION —> convert and educate Natives in Western ways of settlement and society. Expand agriculture!

Civilization Fund Act supported Jefferson’s goals federally. Settled conversion schools, prompting tribal divisions.

What was Longhouse Religion? (CHAP 5)

Blending of several religious ideals by Seneca “Handsome Lake” as a reaction to US siezing of Native land.

Where did Natives stand in slavery?

Growth of slavery due to cotton gin! Some, like Major Ridge of the Cherokee, and James Vann, owned slaves. Some natives were enslaved too.

what was the main goal of the Jacksonian era? (CHAP 5)

REMOVAL!

What was the impact of the War of 1812? (CHAP 5)

Funnels into the Jacksonian policies, lots of American hostility towards Natives.

British betray Tecumseh and Shawnee people at Battle of Thames, leading to Tecumseh’s death.

Creeks find themselves in a civil war, as some are more war-motivated, others want neutrality. Jackson evicts and kills many.

Largely erases Native resistance east of Mississippi. Opens western lands for whites.

Who was Tecumseh? (CHAP 5)

Great image of native resistance - Shawnee leader, medicine man… Rejected tribal ability to sell land, as native land belonged to ALLLL natives. Preached and spoke about this.

What was the Trail of Tears? (CHAP 5)

The forced, Jacksonian era removal of Cherokees from their lands. Was signed by Major Ridge at the Treaty of New Echota, leading to a lot of infighting amongst Cherokee, the debate of selling land by tribal agreement… massive destruction of culture and life.

What was the Indian Removal Act 1830? (CHAP 5)

Gave power to president to negotiate treaties removing eastern tribes to western allocated territory.

What was the Black Hawk War? (CHAP 5)

showcased power of Northwest Ordinance - Americans saw BlackHawk and his people planting corn in their American-owned homelands, prompting a massacre and later cessions of MORE land to US authority.

What was the Second Seminole War? (CHAP 5)

Florida tribes resist Indian Removal by defending their homelands

What were some of the issues on Indian territories? (CHAP 6)

Internal conflicts, civil wars (major ridge), socioeconomic divisions…

Territory was already indian —> pressure and conflict of migratory indians onto indians of the great plains and midwest.

White intrusion

What was the Act for the Protection and Government of Indians? (CHAP 6)

legalized enslavement of Indians, erase Native ability to court testify, and protects whites on indian violence.

What was the Treaty of Guadalupe? (CHAP 6)

Ended the Mexican American War, ceding Southwest-West lands to US claim.

What was the Modoc Resistance? (CHAP 6)

Modoc people wage raids on immigrants and supply wagons → agree to live on reservation → collectively leave reservation, invoking US military siege response → divison of tribe → deserters sell out chief.

What was the Great Raid of 1840 (CHAP 6)?

Pre-mexican american war, showcases Native resistance by Comanche warriors sacking Linnville.

Reasoning for 1845 Texas statehood and federal military lockdown

what were the impacts of the Civil War on the West? (CHAP 6)

war is finished quickly out west, thus any troops are used against natives.

What was the Sand Creek Massacre (CHAP 6)?

Gold discovery in California created white pressure on Cheyenne people, conflict breaks out. Even though Cheyenne are put in reservations, they are massacred by Colonel Chivington in 1864.

What was Grant’s Peace Policy like? (CHAP 6)

sought to segregate Natives to best deal with them, give them space, reasonable treatment and fulfillment of US treaties. Constructed by Ely Parker, a seneca who was commissioner of Indian affairs.

Only thing was, Natives didn’t want to be reserved, and they wanted buffalo hunting access.

What were the Medicine Lodge Treaties of 1867? (CHAP 6)

Sought to relocate Great Plains tribes to Oklahoma reservations in an act of reducing conflict halting US westward expansion.

What was the Red River War of 1874? (CHAP 6)

Palo Duro Canyon —> Colonel Mckenzie devestates camps of Comaches, Kiowas, Cheyenne, killing many, putting in reservation, POWing some…

What were the treaties of Fort Laramie? (CHAP 6)

First treaty asked all tribes to recognize eachother’s boundaries, also seeking election of a singular leader democratically, regardless of cultural traditions. Treaty fails.

2nd treaty recognizes Sioux lands and organization of reservations to establish peace, but is later violated.

Who was Geronimo? (CHAP 6)

Last face of Apache and native resistance, raids on US after family is slaughtered.