psych 101 unit 2 pt 1

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, transforming, and using knowledge.

Thinking

The mental manipulation of representations to understand the world, solve problems, and make decisions.

Mental representation

An internal way the mind stores or depicts information about objects, ideas, events, or relationships.

Analogical representation

A mental representation that physically resembles the object it represents in some way.

Symbolic representation

An abstract mental representation, such as a word or concept, that does not physically resemble what it represents.

Concept

A mental category or class that groups related items, events, ideas, or people.

Category

A group of objects or ideas that share common properties.

Categorization

The process of grouping things based on shared features or characteristics.

Prototype model

A model of concepts in which people compare items to the best or most typical example of a category.

Prototype

The most typical or best example of a category.

Exemplar model

A model of concepts in which people classify objects by comparing them with many stored examples from experience.

Exemplar

A specific remembered instance of a category.

Well-defined concept

A concept with clear, fixed boundaries and defining features.

Fuzzy concept

A concept with unclear or flexible boundaries that may vary by context.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes useful knowledge about objects, situations, roles, or events.

Script

A type of schema that describes the typical sequence of actions in a familiar situation.

Stereotype

An oversimplified schema or generalized belief about a group of people.

Gender roles

Culturally prescribed behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated with males and females.

Mental model

A mental representation of a system or process that helps people describe, explain, and predict how it works.

Decision making

The process of selecting among alternatives.

Problem solving

The process of overcoming obstacles to move from a current state to a desired goal state.

Algorithm

A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution if followed correctly.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that is efficient and quick but not guaranteed to be correct.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution, often experienced as an "aha" moment.

Selective encoding

The process of identifying relevant information and ignoring irrelevant information in a problem.

Selective combination

The process of putting together relevant pieces of information in a useful way to solve a problem.

Selective comparison

The process of relating new information to previously known information, often by analogy.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

Functional fixedness

A type of fixation in which an object is seen only in terms of its usual function.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, notice, and remember information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe after an event occurs that one "knew it all along."

Overconfidence effect

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s judgments or beliefs.

Anchor

A reference point used as a starting value in judgment or decision making.

Anchoring

The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making judgments.

Framing

The way a choice or piece of information is presented, which can influence decision making.

Loss aversion

The tendency for losses to have a greater psychological impact than equivalent gains.

Availability heuristic

The tendency to judge the likelihood or frequency of something based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

The tendency to judge how likely something is to belong to a category based on how much it resembles the prototype of that category.

Base rate

The actual frequency of an event or category in the overall population.

Base rate fallacy

The tendency to ignore base rate information and focus instead on specific but less relevant details.

Gambler's fallacy

The mistaken belief that past random events make opposite outcomes more likely in future random events.

Order effects

The influence that the sequence of presented information has on judgments or decisions.

Integral emotions

Emotions that are directly caused by and relevant to the decision being made.

Incidental emotions

Emotions that are unrelated to the current decision but still influence it.

Affective forecasting

The process of predicting how one will feel in the future after an event or decision.

Endowment effect

The tendency to value something more highly simply because one owns it.

Opt-in system

A system in which people must actively choose to participate.

Opt-out system

A system in which people are automatically included unless they choose not to participate.

Reasoning

The process of drawing conclusions or making judgments based on information.

Heuristic thinking

Fast, efficient thinking that uses mental shortcuts rather than thorough analysis.

Rational decision model

The idea that people make decisions by carefully comparing alternatives and choosing the best one.

Risk analysis

The evaluation of possible losses, gains, and probabilities when making a decision.

Recency effect

A tendency to remember or be influenced more by the most recently presented information.

Conceptual thinking

The process of organizing and using abstract categories and concepts to understand the world.

Typicality

The degree to which a member of a category matches the prototype of that category.

Semantic memory

A long-term store of general knowledge, facts, meanings, and concepts.

Analogy

A comparison between two things based on a similar relationship or structure.

Problem space

The set of possible steps, strategies, and outcomes available when solving a problem.

Current state

The situation a person is in at the beginning of problem solving.

Goal state

The desired outcome or end point in problem solving.

Means-end analysis

A problem-solving strategy that focuses on reducing the difference between the current state and the goal state.

Trial and error

A problem-solving method that involves trying different solutions until one works.

Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in a way that has worked before, even when a new approach is needed.

Default option

The choice that takes effect automatically if a person does not actively choose otherwise.

Bias

A systematic tendency to think, judge, or decide in a way that departs from logic or objectivity.

Courtroom script

A learned sequence of expected behaviors and events in a courtroom setting.

Prototype fruit effect

The idea that some category members, like oranges for fruit, seem more representative than others.

Mood-congruent judgment

The tendency for current mood to influence judgments in a way that matches that mood.

Adaptation

The process by which emotional reactions lessen over time as people adjust to new circumstances.