AP PSYCH MIDTERM

Descriptive research

Involves methods that observe and record behavior without manipulating variables, aiming to describe, not explain, cause-and-effect

Naturalistic observation

involves observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention.

Case study

involves an in-depth investigation of a single individual or group.

Survey

use questionnaires or interviews to collect data from a large number of people.

Population

The entire group that a researcher is interested in studying

Sample

A sample is a smaller group selected from the population to participate in the study.

Sampling bias

occurs when the sample is not representative of the population

Random sample

ensures every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Convenience sampling

selecting participants who are readily available

Representative sample accurately reflects the demographics and characteristics of the population

Social desirability bias

occurs when respondents give answers they think are socially acceptable rather than truthful

Non-response Bias

sampling error that occurs when a significant portion of a selected sample does not participate in a study

Correlation

Refers to a statistical relationship between two variables

Hypothesis

Specific, testable prediction derived from a theory

Operational definition

specifies how a concept is measured or manipulated in a study

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained

Positive Correlation

One variable increases, the other also increases

Negative correlation

One variable increases, the other decreases

Correlational coefficient

Represents the strength and direction of a correlation, ranges from -1 to 1

Illusory Correlation

This occurs when people perceive a relationship between two variables even when none exists

Regression Toward the Mean

This is the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward the average

Experimental Methodology

A research method where the researcher manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable, allowing for cause-and-effect relationships to be established

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured to see how it is affected by changes in the IV.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, allowing researchers to compare results and draw conclusions about the treatment’s effect.

Random Assignment

Participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group to ensure that each group is similar before the treatment is applied

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in the experimental or control group.

Placebo

A harmless, inactive substance or treatment given to the control group to compare its effects with those of the actual treatment.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where participants experience changes simply because they believe they are receiving a treatment.

Confounding Variable

An external factor that could influence the results of an experiment, making it difficult to establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship

Central tendency

Where the "center" of the data lies

Mean (Average)

The sum of all scores divided by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score when the data is arranged in order

Mode

The most frequently occurring score.

Normal distribution

the mean, median and mode are all the same

Skewness

A measure of the asymmetry of a distribution.

Positive Skew (Right-Skewed)

Mean > Median > Mode

Negative Skew (Left-Skewed)

Mean < Median < Mode

Bimodal Distributions

A distribution with two distinct peaks.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard Deviation

The average distance of each score from the mean.

Empirical Rule (68-95-99.7 Rule)

68% of the data falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean, 95% of the data falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean , 99.7% of the data falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean

34-14-2 Rule

34% of the data falls within 1 standard deviation of the mean, 14% of the data falls within 2 standard deviations of the mean , 2% of the data falls within 3 standard deviations of the mean

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or lower than a given score.

Statistical Significance

Statistical significance

Definition

P-value

Represents the probability of obtaining results as extreme (or more extreme) as those observed in the study, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

Common Threshold

p < .05 (less than 5% probability that the results are due to chance)

P Interpretation

If p < .05, we conclude that there is a statistically significant effect.

Neurotransmission

The process where neurons communicate using electrical signals (action potentials) down the axon and chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) across the synapse

Refractory period

After firing, the neuron needs time to reset before firing again

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it’s ready to fire but hasn’t yet

Reuptake is too slow

Too much chemical is being absorbed…the message keeps sending = excess of a neurotransmitter

Reuptake is too fast

Not enough chemical is absorbed = deficit of a neurotransmitter & incomplete message sent

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Encourage neurons to fire

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Prevent neurons from firing

Types of excitatory neurotransmitters

Dopamine

Reward and motivation

High dopamine levels

Schizophrenia

Low dopamine levels

Parkinson's disease

Norepinephrine

Arouses alertness and energy

High norepinephrine levels

Anxiety, bipolar

Low norepinephrine levels

Depression, ADHD

Glutamate

Linked to learning and memory

High glutamate levels

Migraines, Seizures

Low glutamate levels

Autism

Gaba

Calms the nervous system

High gaba levels

Anxiety

Low gaba levels

Insomnia

Serotonin

Regulates mood and sleep

High serotonin levels

Happiness, emotional regulation

Low serotonin levels

Depression

Endorphins

Natural painkillers

High endorphin levels

Emotional dysregulation

Low endorphin levels

Anxiety, depression

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals to the brain

High substance p levels

Chronic pain

Low substance levels

Alcohol abuse, anxiety

SAME

Sensory, Afferent. Motor, Efferent

Sensory/ afferent

Take sensory information from the environment and send the signal to the brain

Motor/ efferent neurons

Communicate information from the brain to tissues and organs throughout the body allowing for movement

The nervous system

The ultimate communication network of your body

The central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord, processing information and sending instructions throughout the body

The peripheral nervous system

All the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord, Connects the CNS to the rest of the body

Somatic nervous system

voluntary actions

Autonomic nervous system

involuntary actions

Sympathetic

fight or flight

Parasympathetic

rest and digest

Action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon

All or nothing principle

A neuron either fires or it doesn’t—there’s no halfway

Depolarization

When a neuron’s charge becomes less negative, leading to firing

Synapse

Synapses are tiny gaps at the junctions between two neurons where signals are transmitted from one neuron to another

Agonists

Drug or chemical that binds to a receptor site and triggers a response, mimicking or enhancing the effects of a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

Drug or chemical substance that binds to neural receptors but does not activate them, thereby blocking or inhibiting neurotransmitters from binding and exerting their effects

Brainstem

Brain’s command center, where basic bodily processes happen without any conscious thought

Medulla

Manages vital functions like breathing and heart rate