Anth 112 : Geographic Expansion - Chpt 7

Initial Australia Occupation - Sahul

the land mass of “Greater Australia” including Australia, New Guinea and Tasmania

during periods of glacial maxima in the Pleistocene these three islands were combines in the single land mass called Sahul

• world was very different looking at this time period, more water - trapped in glaciers 

was always a separate island - meaning that watercraft was used 

only anatomical modern humans have been recovered from Australia 

Initial Australia Occupation - Sunda

combined land mass of the modern islands of Java, Sumatra, Bali, and Borneo

these islands became a single, continuous land mass during periods of glacial and attendant lowered sea level during the Pleistocene

people could walk from Southeast Asia into Sunda

Initial Australia Occupation - Wallace Trench

an undersea chasm located between New Guinea/Australia and Java/Borneo

during times of lower sea levels, Sunda and Sahul were separated by the deep water in Wallacea

Early Australian site - Madjedbebe Rockshelter

evidence of human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000yrs ago

this site was dated using Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating - when sediment was last in the sunlight, when it was exposed and occupied

very early date

stone flakes, tools, hearths, midden, ochre, rock art - all found here

Early Australian site - Lake Mungo

in the Willandra Lakes region

has some of Australia’s earliest human occupations including the earliest ochre and cremation burials dating to about 40,000yrs ago

50,000 year-old artifacts were also recovered 

series of dried-up lake beds - footprints found 

human skeletal remains - 40,000yrs 

the Mungo Man - covered in red ochre

the Mungo Lady - evidence of cremation 

tools dated older than humans found, haven’t been found yet 

Early Australian site - Devil’s Lair

demonstrates a human presence in southwest Australia by 50,000yrs ago

sites around the perimeter of the country are the oldest sites, marine adapted

interior sites are a bit more recent - 30,000yrs

Australian DNA Comparison

indigenous people of Australia and New Guinea are most closely related - based on the journey to Australia

no DNA extracted in remains from the oldest migration

timing of migration is still unsure, no exact date - 65,000 to 60,000yrs

Glaciation Significance 

glaciers covered enormous portions of land

led to areas, North America, not available for occupation 

so much water held in these, much lower water levels, much more land was exposed compared to today

Pleistocene Megafauna

term used to describe the large, now extinct herbivores of the Pleistocene

Pleistocene Epoch

geological epoch that lasted from 2.58million to 11,700yrs ago

• Siberian mammoths (4m tall), giant ground sloths (2.5-3m tall), mastodon, bison antiquus

• tar pits - huge amounts of fossils, get stuck in, unable to escape, think Croods

• first human occupation would have been big game hunters

• what caused extinction - overhunting, climate change (retreat of ice sheets, colder environments no longer, having to readapt)

• Megafauna in Australia as well - huge kangaroos, rhino sized wombats - extinction does not fall into significant climate change but does with human arrival and hunting

• fungus in soil - spores decline 41,000yrs - fungal spores in feces, no loner present

• not just big game hunters, utilized a variety of resources

Clovis First hypothesis

suggested that the Clovis culture represents the initial human occupation of the Americas

Clovis culture - 13,000yrs - first found in Mexico

in recent decades, evidence suggests that people arrived in the Americas at least 24,000yrs ago

• proof that predates Clovis

Clovis - what is it

fluted projectile point type that dates 13,200yrs to 11,900yrs ago

• first well represented tool technology in the Americas, not the first made, but the most well spread

• connected to a spear

• fluted point 0 flakes removed from bottom, like a slot for a spear

• very well made, bifacial (worked on both sides)

• first ones were found in association with mammoth skulls, hunting

Pre-Clovis hypothesis 

suggests that the human occupation of the Americas predates Clovis 

in recent years, excavations have revealed many pre-Clovis sites

two of the first widely accepted pre-Clovis sites include Monte Verde, Chile and Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania 

Monte Verde, Chile - Pre-Clovis site

identified as a small community of about 20-30 people that was occupied at least 15,000yrs ago

location in South America is significant - about 16,000km south of the Beringian point of entry to the Americas

location suggests that people must have migrates along the Pacific Coast - predates glacial retreat, could not travel through the inland

• lots of radiocarbon dates gathered, some dates earlier than 15,000

• incredible preservation - located beside a stream, covered rapidly by sediments, bog environment/anaerobic

• plant material, hides, fish/shellfish (marine adapted), mastodon

Tom Dillehay - began excavations here

Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania - Pre-Clovis site

site was occupied at least 15,000yrs ago

includes occupation levels that predate Clovis, well stratified

identified as the longest continuous occupation sequence in eastern North America

well dates, radiocarbon dating, 1970s

Bering Land Bridge Hypothesis 

people migrated to the Americas by traveling across Beringia - land bridge, thought to have followed the megafauna 

** was exposed 35,000 to 11,000yrs ago

people could have walked from Siberia to the Americas during that time 

• massive track of land, tundra, vegetated, not just a little strip of land but a huge open area 

the ice-free corridor opened as the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets retreated 

recent studies (floral and fauna analysis) suggest the ice-free corridor was habitable by about 12,600yrs ago

Mackenzie corridor - separation of ice sheets - able to travel through North America 

12,600yrs able to travel, before too harsh and cold, no survival needs

• so how is there sites beyond that area but before the corridor, other movement 

Pacific Coastal Route Hypothesis

suggests that people used watercraft to migrate along the coast of northeast Asia and northwest North America

• areas of land, ice sheets did not go all the way to the ocean, areas of suitable, livable land

• moved from Beringia and traveled along the coast, watercraft

• no watercraft that date to that period have been found, as the ice melted so much of the coast was covered - 120m of water - organic material too, doesn’t preserve well

• travel her over 14,500yrs

Solutrean Hypothesis

Clovis points are “similar” to Solutrean points, say they must be related cultures, to north Atlantic (France)

travel from that area to east North America is suggested

but can you say since one tool or method is similar it means groups are related, there is very little info to support this

and lots of evidence disproving it

Evidence that supports migration from NE Asia to the Americas 

DNA evidence demonstrates the relationship between Asian and Indigenous North and South American populations 

Mitochondrial DNA (passed through mother) and comparison of Y-chromosomes (paternal) of living northeast Asian and New World populations show a shared genetic inheritance

5 mitochondrial DNA haplogroups - all present when relating todays DNA

DNA analysis proof - The Anzick Site, Montana

Clovis burial that dates almost 13,000yrs ago - only confirmed Clovis burial

DNA recovered from the skeletal remains confirms shared genetic ancestry between Clovis and Northeast Asian populations

the Clovis child is closely related to Indigenous people from the Americas

• stone tools and burial of child found - covered in red ochre - 18-month old boy

• genes found originated in southeast Asia, did not migrate from Europe

remains were reburied by Indigenous groups, had a ceremony

DNA analysis proof - Mal’ta, Siberia 

scientists sequenced the genome of a child that lived 24,000yrs ago in southcentral Siberia near Lake Baikal

intermediate between Siberian and American, genetically closest to American Indigenous 

DNA analysis proof - Hoyo Negro, Mexico

the oldest, most complete human skeletal remains in the New World, date to 13,000yrs ago from the Yucatan region of eastern Mexico

small saturated female found, underwater site - evidence of Beringian DNA, closely related to South American Indigenous; named Naia

radiocarbon and calcium carbonate crystals formed on skull - used uranium thorium dating

skull, cheekbones - slightly different characteristics, still DNA proves same ancestry

DNA analysis proof - Kennewick Man

9000 year old skeletal remains from Washington State - DNA analysis was completed before remain were reinterred

• 40yrs old at death - projectile point in the side of body lived with it for many years, bones began to heal around it, could date point

• also was cranially morphological different

• archaeologists went to court to get granted analysis, was considered a burial, and in the end was reburied

• most closely related to the Indigenous people in that area, found through isotope analysis that he was from Siberia area

Late Pleistocene sites in Northeast Asia 

• SK Mammoth site, Russia - 45,000yrs - stone tool cut marks, shins 

• Mamontovaya Kurya, Russia - 40,000yrs

• Yana RHS, Eastern Siberia - 32,000yrs - edge of Beringia, “Rhino Horn Site”

Russian Arctic was occupied 45,000yrs ago, well established 

we see sites in the area of Beringia when the land bridge was open

Early North American sites in Eastern Beringia - 2

1. Bluefish Caves, Yukon - cultural materials at the site date to 24,000yrs

• very early age - earliest well dated site in the Americas

• stayed in the area before migrating to the rest of the continent - ice sheets

• stone tool cut marks, radiocarbon dating

• no one accepted - controversial, Pre-Clovis site, but also so old

• redating has occurred - reconfirming the dates, and that the cut marks aren’t striations

• Beringian Standstill hypothesis - stayed in area

2. Swan Point, Alaska - 14,000yrs - oldest site in Alaska

• butchered animals found, cut marks, and tools cut

• microblade - small blades removed from cobbles of stone

• very similar tech, wedge shaped core microblade - found on both sides of the land bridge

some of the earliest sites in Eastern Beringia

Additional Examples of Early Archaeological (Pre-Clovis) Sites South of the Ice Sheets - 4

Debra L. Friedkin, Texas - 15,500yrs

• along Buttermilk Creek - stone tools, precursors to Clovis

• thought that Clovis was brought over - but now know that it was made in the Americas

Cactus Hill, Virginia - 15,000yrs

• very well stratified - undisturbed layers - found stone blades (7-20cm below Clovis)

• undisturbed, sterile soil layers that separate the Clovis and Pre-Clovis layers

Paisley 5 Mile Point Caves, Oregon - 14,300yrs

• feces found in a cave site, organic material, lots of material for radiocarbon dating

• was able to extract DNA from the coprolites - oldest DNA ever found in America

Manis Site, Washington - 13,800yrs

• animal ribs, spear points embedded in

• DNA analysis on animal bone - determine what kind of animal was being hunted, both spear point and rib was mastodon

White Sands National Park, New Mexico - 23,000 to 21,000yrs

Another Pre-Clovis site south of the ice sheets 

• ancient footprints revealed early occupation of New Mexico 

• these footprints were left by the people who walked along the edge of a lake, leaving impressions that hardened and then covered by sediments 

• footprints relatively small, teenagers and children 

• one set were adult with a child, can see where the adult picked up the child 

• seeds embedded in the sediment layers between the footprints were radiocarbon dated, organic material present in the sediments - couldn’t rule out contamination - moisture and water can affect the carbon dating

• also used OSL dating, quartz mineral crystal age - dates the same as carbon

• even evidence of stalking a giant ground sloth, people’s prints inside the sloths, tracking