Learning NEW CED

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Unconditioned Stimuli

stimuli that automatically triggers a response

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Conditioned Response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Stimulus Discrimination

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Stimulus Generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

Taste Aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning with only one pairing of stimulus and response.

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Positive Punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Negative Punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Instinctive Drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

Learned Helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed Interval

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable Interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Fixed Ratio

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable Ratio

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Scalloped Graph

the pattern that appears on a cumulative response graph when a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule is used; reflects an inconsistent pattern of responding in which the organism only begins making the response as the time for the available reinforcements draws near

Fixed Interval

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable Interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Fixed Ratio

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable Ratio

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Vicarious Conditioning

classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Insight Learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Cognitive Maps

An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.