Psychology - Research Methods

Key experimental terms and techniques which are essential for Unit 4 - AOS 3 and the final exam which is on October 31st.

Experiment

When a cause and effect relationship between two variables is measured in a controlled environment.

Between-subjects design

An experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition.

Within-subjects design

An experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition.

Controlled experiment

An experiment where the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is tested while aiming to control all other variables.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon (activity, behaviour, event, or problem) that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world

Correlational study

A type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any active control or manipulation of them

Classification

The arrangement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets.

Identification

A process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set.

Fieldwork

Any research involving observation and interaction with people and environments in realworld settings, conducted beyond the laboratory.

Literature review

The process of collating and analysing secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data.

Modelling 

The construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small- or large-scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand, or simulate the system.

Product, process, or system development

The design or evaluation of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications, in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures.

Simulation

A process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system.

Within-subjects design

An experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition.

Between-subjects design

An experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition.

Mixed design

An experimental design which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects designs.

What are the 5 different types of Fieldwork?

1. Direct observation

2. Qualitative interviews

3. Questionnaires

4. Focus groups

5. Yarning circles

Population

The group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn.

Sample

A subset of the research population who participate in a study.

Generalisable (also known as generalisability)

The ability for a sample’s results to be used to make conclusions about the wider research population.

Convenience sampling

Any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach.

Random sampling

Any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected.

Stratified sampling

Any sampling technique that involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata (subgroups) are proportionally represented in the sample.

Allocation

The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions or groups.

Extraneous variable

Any variable that is not the independent variable but may cause an unwanted effect on the dependent variable.

Confounding variable

A variable that has directly and systematically affected the dependent variable, apart from the independent variable.

Order effects

A type of extraneous variable, the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour.

Placebo effect

A type of extraneous variable, when participants respond to an inactive substance or treatment as a result of their expectations or beliefs.

Experimenter effect (also known as experimenter bias)

A type of extraneous variable, when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment.

Situational variables

A type of extraneous variable, any environmental factor that may affect the dependent variable.

Non-standardised instructions and procedures

A type of extraneous variable, when directions and procedures differ across participants or experimental conditions.

Demand characteristics

A type of extraneous variable, cues in an experiment that may signal to a participant the intention of the study and influence their behaviour.

Counterbalancing 

A method to reduce order effects that involves ordering experimental conditions in a certain way.

Single-blind procedure

A procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental group or condition they have been allocated to.

Double-blind procedure

A procedure in which both participants and the experimenter do not know which conditions or groups participants are allocated to.

Objective data

Factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion.

Subjective data

Data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation.

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured.

Precision

How closely a set of measurement values agree with each other.

Systematic errors

Errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount.

Random errors

Errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance.

Uncertainty

The lack of exact knowledge relating to something being measured due to potential sources of variation in knowledge.

Repeatability

The extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when carried out under identical conditions within a short period of time.

Reproducibility

The extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when repeated under different conditions.

Validity

The extent to which psychological tools and investigations truly support their findings or conclusions.

Internal validity

The extent to which an investigation truly measures or investigates what it claims to.

External validity

The extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings.

Beneficence

The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.

Integrity

the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.

Justice

The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.

Non-maleficence

The principle of avoiding causing harm.

Respect

An ethical concept

Confidentiality 

The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.

Informed consent procedures

Processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks, before agreeing to participate in the study.

Deception

The act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure.

Debriefing

A procedure that ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions.

Voluntary participation

A principle that ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.

Withdrawal rights

The right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after the conclusion of, an experiment without penalty.

What are the four factors relevant to evaluating psychological issues, research, and practice?

1. Sociocultural factors

2. Economic factors

3. Political factors

4. Legal Factors